Trajectories of cultural innovation from the Middle to Later Stone Age in Eastern Africa: Personal ornaments, bone artifacts, and ocher from Panga ya Saidi, Kenya

Journal of Human Evolution - Tập 141 - Trang 102737 - 2020
Francesco d’Errico1,2, Africa Pitarch Martí1,3, Ceri Shipton4, Emma Le Vraux1, Emmanuel Ndiema5, Steven Goldstein6, Michael D. Petraglia6,7,8, Nicole Boivin6,8,9,10
1UMR 5199 CNRS De La Préhistoire à L'Actuel: Culture, Environnement, et Anthropologie (PACEA), Université Bordeaux, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS 50023 F - 33615 Pessac CEDEX, Talence, France
2Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour, Øysteinsgate 3, Postboks 7805, 5020, University of Bergen, Norway
3Seminari d'Estudis i Recerques Prehistòriques (SERP), Facultat de Geografia i Història, Departament d'Història i Arqueologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Montalegre 6, 08001, Barcelona, Spain
4Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage, College of Asia and the Pacific, The Australian National University, ACT 0200, Australia
5National Museums of Kenya, Department of Earth Sciences, Box 40658 – 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
6Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Kahlaische Strasse 10, D-07745 Jena, Germany
7Human Origins Program, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., 20560, USA
8School of Social Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia
9Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr. N.W., Calgary, AB, T2N 1N4, Canada
10Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 10th St. & Constitution Ave. NW Washington, D.C. 20560, USA

Tài liệu tham khảo

Adler, 2014, Early Levallois technology and the Lower to Middle Paleolithic transition in the Southern Caucasus, Science, 345, 1609, 10.1126/science.1256484 Ackermann, 2016, The hybrid origin of modern humans, Evol. Biol., 43, 1, 10.1007/s11692-015-9348-1 Ambrose, 1998, Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans, J. Hum. Evol., 34, 623, 10.1006/jhev.1998.0219 Aranguren, 2018, Wooden tools and fire technology in the early Neanderthal site of Poggetti Vecchi (Italy), Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 115, 2054, 10.1073/pnas.1716068115 Assefa, 2008, Symbolic use of terrestrial gastropod opercula during the Middle Stone Age at Porc-Epic Cave, Ethiopia, Curr. Anthropol., 49, 746, 10.1086/589509 Assefa, 2018, Engraved ostrich eggshell from the Middle Stone Age contexts of Goda Buticha, Ethiopia, J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep., 17, 723 Backwell, 2001, Termite gathering by Swartkrans early hominids, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 98, 1358, 10.1073/pnas.98.4.1358 Backwell, 2005, The origin of bone tool technology and the identification of early hominid cultural traditions, 238 Backwell, 2016, Osseous projectile weaponry from early to late Middle Stone Age Africa, 15 Backwell, 2008, Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa, J. Archaeol. Sci., 35, 1566, 10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.006 Backwell, 2018, New Excavations at Border Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, J. Field Archaeol., 43, 417, 10.1080/00934690.2018.1504544 Barham, 2002, Systematic pigment use in the Middle Pleistocene of south-central Africa, Curr. Anthropol., 43, 181, 10.1086/338292 Bicho, 2018, Portable art and personal ornaments from Txina-Txina: a new Later Stone Age site in the Limpopo River Valley, southern Mozambique, Antiquity, 92, 1, 10.15184/aqy.2018.95 Biittner, 2017, Excavations at Mlambalasi rockshelter: A terminal Pleistocene to Recent Iron Age record in southern Tanzania, Afr. Archaeol. Rev., 34, 275, 10.1007/s10437-017-9253-3 Binford, 1981 Blinkhorn, 2014, Ostrich expansion into India during the Late Pleistocene: Implication for continental dispersal corridors, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 417, 80, 10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.10.026 1989 Bouzouggar, 2007, 82,000-year-old shell beads from North Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A, 104, 9964, 10.1073/pnas.0703877104 Bouzouggar, 2018, 90,000 year-old specialised bone technology in the Aterian Middle Stone Age of North Africa, PLoS One, 13, 10.1371/journal.pone.0202021 Bradfield, 2016, Bone point functional diversity: A cautionary tale from southern Africa, 31 Bradfield, 2015, Southern African arrow poison recipes, their ingredients and implications for Stone Age archaeology, South. Afr. Humanit., 27, 29 Brooks, 1995, Dating and context of three Middle Stone Age sites with bone points in the Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire, Science, 268, 548, 10.1126/science.7725099 Brooks, 2018, Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age, Science, 360, 90, 10.1126/science.aao2646 Browning, 2018, Analysis of human sequence data reveals two pulses of archaic denisovan admixture, Cell, 173, 53, 10.1016/j.cell.2018.02.031 Bruner, 2014, Functional craniology, human evolution, and anatomical constraints in the Neanderthal braincase, 121 Chan, 2019, Human origins in a southern African palaeo-wetland and first migrations, Nature, 575, 185, 10.1038/s41586-019-1714-1 Chikhi, 2018, The IICR (inverse instantaneous coalescence rate) as a summary of genomic diversity: insights into demographic inference and model choice, Heredity, 120, 13, 10.1038/s41437-017-0005-6 2001 Claassen, 1998 Colagè, 2018, Culture: the driving force of human cognition, Top. Cognitive Sci. Coolidge, 2017 d'Errico, 1995, A new model and its implications for the origin of writing: the La Marche antler revisited, Camb. Archaeol. J., 5, 163, 10.1017/S095977430001502X d'Errico, 1998, Palaeolithic origins of artificial memory systems: an evolutionary perspective, 19 d'Errico, 2003, The invisible frontier. A multiple species model for the origin of behavioral modernity, Evol. Anthropol., 12, 188, 10.1002/evan.10113 d'Errico, 2016, Earliest evidence of personal ornaments associated with burial: the Conus shells from Border Cave, J. Human Evol., 93, 91, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.01.002 d'Errico, 2015, Tephra studies and the reconstruction of Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic cultural trajectories, Quat. Sci. Rev., 118, 182, 10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.05.014 d'Errico, 2018, Cultural exaptation and cultural neural reuse: a mechanism for the emergence of modern culture and behavior, Biol. Theor., 13, 213, 10.1007/s13752-018-0306-x d'Errico, 2007, Additional evidence for bone technology in the southern African Middle Stone Age, J. Human Evol., 52, 142, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.08.003 d'Errico, 2000, A new look at the Berekhat Ram figurine: implications for the origins of symbolism, Camb. Archaeol. J., 10, 123, 10.1017/S0959774300000056 d'Errico, 1984, An experimental study on the technology of bone- implement manufacturing, Mus. Appl. Sci. Cent. Archaeol., 3, 71 d'Errico, 1993, Etude des perforations naturelles et artificielles sur coquillages, 243 d'Errico, 2005, Nassarius kraussianus shell beads from Blombos Cave: evidence for symbolic behaviour in the Middle Stone Age, J. Human Evol., 48, 3, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.09.002 d'Errico, 2009, Additional evidence on the use of personal ornaments in the Middle Paleolithic of North Africa, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A, 106, 16051, 10.1073/pnas.0903532106 d'Errico, 2012, Technological, elemental and colorimetric analysis of an engraved ochre fragment from the Middle Stone Age levels of Klasies River Cave 1, South Africa, J. Archaeol. Sci., 39, 942, 10.1016/j.jas.2011.10.032 d'Errico, 2012, Early evidence of San material culture represented by organic artifacts from Border Cave, South Africa, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A, 109, 13214, 10.1073/pnas.1204213109 d'Errico, 2015, Assessing the accidental versus deliberate colour modification of shell beads: a case study on perforated Nassarius kraussianus from Blombos Cave Middle Stone Age levels, Archaeometry, 57, 51, 10.1111/arcm.12072 d'Errico, 2017, Identifying early modern human ecological niche expansions and associated cultural dynamics in the South African Middle Stone Age, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A, 114, 7869, 10.1073/pnas.1620752114 d'Errico, 2018, From number sense to number symbols. An archaeological perspective, Phil. Trans. Biol. Sci., 373, 20160518, 10.1098/rstb.2016.0518 De la Peña, 2018, Revisiting Mwulu's Cave: new insights into the Middle Stone Age in the southern African savanna biome, Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci., 11, 3239, 10.1007/s12520-018-0749-9 Dediu, 2018, Neanderthal language revisited: not only us, Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci., 21, 49, 10.1016/j.cobeha.2018.01.001 Dirks, 2016, Deliberate body disposal by hominins in the Dinaledi Chamber, Cradle of Humankind, South Africa?, J. Human Evol., 30, 1 Dirks, 2017, The age of Homo naledi and associated sediments in the Rising Star Cave, South Africa, eLife, 6, 10.7554/eLife.24231 Doerschner, 2016, A new chronology for Rhafas, northeast Morocco, spanning the North African Middle Stone Age through to the Neolithic, PLoS One, 11, 10.1371/journal.pone.0162280 Douze, 2016, The pattern of emergence of a Middle Stone Age tradition at Gademotta and Kulkuletti (Ethiopia) through convergent tool and point technologies, J. Human Evol., 91, 93, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.11.006 Durvasula, 2018, Recovering signals of ghost archaic admixture in the genomes of present-day Africans, bioRxiv, 285734 Fu, 2015, An early modern human from Romania with a recent Neanderthal ancestor, Nature, 524, 216, 10.1038/nature14558 Giaccio, 2017, High-precision 14C and 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Campanian Ignimbrite (Y-5) reconciles the time-scales of climatic-cultural processes at 40 ka, Sci. Rep., 7, 45940, 10.1038/srep45940 Gliganic, 2012, New ages for Middle and Later Stone Age deposits at Mumba rockshelter, Tanzania: Optically stimulated luminescence dating of quartz and feldspar grains, J. Human Evol., 62, 533, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.02.004 Gunz, 2009, Early modern human diversity suggests subdivided population structure and a complex out-of-Africa scenario, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A, 106, 6094, 10.1073/pnas.0808160106 Gunz, 2019, Neandertal introgression sheds light on modern human endocranial globularity, Curr. Biol., 29, 120, 10.1016/j.cub.2018.10.065 Harding, 1961, Conus shell disc ornaments (Vibangwa) in Africa, J. Royal Anthropol. Inst.Great B. Ireland, 91, 52, 10.2307/2844468 Harris, 2016, The genetic cost of Neanderthal introgression, Genetics, 203, 881, 10.1534/genetics.116.186890 Hawks, 2017, New fossil remains of Homo naledi from the Lesedi Chamber, South Africa, eLife, 6, 10.7554/eLife.24232 Helm, 2012, Exploring agriculture, interaction and trade on the eastern African litoral: preliminary results from Kenya, Azania, 47, 39, 10.1080/0067270X.2011.647947 Henn, 2011, Hunter-gatherer genomic diversity suggests a southern African origin for modern humans, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 108, 5154, 10.1073/pnas.1017511108 Henshilwood, 2003, The origin of modern human behavior: critique of the models and their test implications, Curr. Anthropol., 44, 627, 10.1086/377665 Henshilwood, 2002, Emergence of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa, Science, 295, 1278, 10.1126/science.1067575 Henshilwood, 2009, Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa, J. Human Evol., 57, 27, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.01.005 Henshilwood, 2014, Klipdrift shelter, southern Cape, South Africa: preliminary report on the Howiesons Poort layers, J.Archaeolog. Sci., 45, 284, 10.1016/j.jas.2014.01.033 Hodgskiss, 2010, Identifying grinding, scoring and rubbing use-wear on experimental ochre pieces, J. Archaeolog. Sci., 37, 3344, 10.1016/j.jas.2010.08.003 Hoffmann, 2018, U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art, Science, 359, 912, 10.1126/science.aap7778 Hu, 2019, Late Middle Pleistocene Levallois stone-tool technology in southwest China, Nature, 565, 82, 10.1038/s41586-018-0710-1 Hublin, 2017, New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of Homo sapiens, Nature, 546, 289, 10.1038/nature22336 Jacobs, 2015, An improved single grain OSL chronology for the sedimentary deposits from Diepkloof Rockshelter, Western Cape, South Africa, J. Archaeol. Sci., 63, 175, 10.1016/j.jas.2015.01.023 Jacobs, 2008, Ages for the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: implications for human behavior and dispersal, Science, 322, 733, 10.1126/science.1162219 Jacobs, 2011, Single-grain OSL dating at La Grotte des Contrebandiers (‘Smugglers’ Cave’), Morocco: improved age constraints for the Middle Paleolithic levels, J. Archaeolog. Sci., 38, 3631, 10.1016/j.jas.2011.08.033 Jacobs, 2012, Single-grain OSL chronologies for Middle Palaeolithic deposits at El Mnasra and El Harhoura 2, Morocco: Implications for Late Pleistocene human–environment interactions along the Atlantic coast of northwest Africa, J. Human Evol., 62, 377, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.12.001 Jaubert, 2016, Early Neanderthal constructions deep in Bruniquel Cave in southwestern France, Nature, 534, 111, 10.1038/nature18291 Johansson, 2015, Language abilities in Neanderthals, Ann. Rev. Ling., 1, 311, 10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124945 Joordens, 2015, Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving, Nature, 518, 228, 10.1038/nature13962 Kandel, 2005, Production sequences of ostrich eggshell beads and settlement dynamics in the Geelbek Dunes of the Western Cape, South Africa, J. Archaeolog. Sci., 32, 1711, 10.1016/j.jas.2005.05.010 Kissel, 2018, Behavioral modernity as a process, not an event, in the Human Niche, Time Mind, 11, 163, 10.1080/1751696X.2018.1469230 Klein, 1995, Anatomy, behavior, and modern human origins, J World PreHistory, 9, 167, 10.1007/BF02221838 Kozuch, 2007, Replication of Busycon columella shell beads, Ill. Archaeol., 15–16, 142 Lafuente, 2015, The power of databases: the RRUFF project, 1 Langley, 2016, Poison arrows and bone utensils in late Pleistocene eastern Africa: evidence from Kuumbi Cave, Zanzibar, Azania, 51, 155, 10.1080/0067270X.2016.1173302 Locht, 2016, Timescales, space and culture during the Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern France, Quat. Int., 411, 129, 10.1016/j.quaint.2015.07.053 Lombard, 2018, Ancient human DNA: How sequencing the genome of a boy from Ballito Bay changed human history, South Afr. J. Sci., 114 Mackay, 2008, Engraved ochre from a Middle Stone Age context at Klein Kliphuis in the Western Cape of South Africa, J. Archaeolog. Sci., 35, 1521, 10.1016/j.jas.2007.10.015 Majkić, 2017, A decorated raven bone from the Zaskalnaya VI (Kolosovskaya) Neanderthal site, Crimea, PLoS One, 12, 10.1371/journal.pone.0173435 Marean, 2015, An evolutionary anthropological perspective on modern human origins, Annual Review of Anthropology, 44, 533, 10.1146/annurev-anthro-102313-025954 Martí, 2017, The earliest evidence of coloured ornaments in China: The ochred ostrich eggshell beads from Shuidonggou Locality 2, J. Anthropolog. Archaeol., 48, 102, 10.1016/j.jaa.2017.07.002 Mattes, 1974 Mayer, 2009, Shells and ochre in Middle Paleolithic Qafzeh Cave, Israel: indications for modern behavior, J. Human Evol., 56, 307, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.10.005 McBrearty, 2000, The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior, J. Human Evol., 39, 453, 10.1006/jhev.2000.0435 Mehlman, 1989 Miller, 2012 Miller, 2019 Miller, 2018, Land snail shell beads in the sub-Saharan archaeological record: when, where, and why?, Afr. Archaeolog. Rev., 35, 347, 10.1007/s10437-018-9305-3 Miller, 2014, Radiometrically dated ostrich eggshell beads from the Middle and Later Stone Age of Magubike Rockshelter, southern Tanzania, J. Human Evol., 74, 118, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.12.011 Mourer-Chauviré, 2008, The Struthionidae and Pelagornithidae (Aves: Sthruthioniformes, Odontopterygiformes) from the Late Pliocènes of Ahl Al Oughlam, Morocco, Oryctos, 7, 169 Neubauer, 2018, The evolution of modern human brain shape, Sci. Adv., 4, 10.1126/sciadv.aao5961 Newcomer, 1974, Study and replication of bone tools from Ksar Akil (Lebanon), World Archaeol., 6, 138, 10.1080/00438243.1974.9979598 Orton, 2008, Later Stone Age ostrich eggshell bead manufacture in the Northern Cape, South Africa, J. Archaeolog. Sci., 35, 1765, 10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.014 Pagani, 2012, Ethiopian genetic diversity reveals linguistic stratification and complex influences on the Ethiopian gene pool, Am. J. Human Genet., 91, 83, 10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.05.015 Patin, 2018, The demographic and adaptive history of central African hunter-gatherers and farmers, Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev., 53, 90, 10.1016/j.gde.2018.07.008 Prendergast, 2019, Ancient DNA Reveals a Multi-Step Spread of the First Herders into Sub-Saharan Africa, Science, 365, 10.1126/science.aaw6275 Pettitt, 2010 Porraz, 2018, The MIS5 Pietersburg at ‘28’ Bushman Rock Shelter, Limpopo Province, South Africa, PLoS One, 13, 10.1371/journal.pone.0202853 Relethford, 1994, Craniometric variation, genetic theory, and modern human origins, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 95, 249, 10.1002/ajpa.1330950302 Rifkin, 2012, Processing ochre in the Middle Stone Age: Testing the inference of prehistoric behaviours from actualistically derived experimental data, J. Anthropol. Archaeol., 31, 174, 10.1016/j.jaa.2011.11.004 Rifkin, 2015, Pleistocene figurative art mobilier from Apollo 11 Cave, Karas Region, southern Namibia, South Afr. Archaeol. Bull., 70, 113 Rito, 2019, A dispersal of Homo sapiens from southern to eastern Africa immediately preceded the out-of-Africa migration, Sci. Rep., 9, 4728, 10.1038/s41598-019-41176-3 Robbins, 2012, The antiquity of the bow and arrow in the Kalahari Desert: bone points from White Paintings Rock Shelter, Botswana, J. Afr. Archaeol., 10, 7, 10.3213/2191-5784-10211 Roberts, 2019, Late Pleistocene to Holocene human palaeoecology in the tropical environments of coastal eastern Africa, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. Roebroeks, 2011, On the earliest evidence for habitual use of fire in Europe, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 108, 5209, 10.1073/pnas.1018116108 Rosso, 2014, Stratigraphic and spatial distribution of ochre and ochre processing tools at Porc-Epic Cave, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, Quat. Int., 343, 85, 10.1016/j.quaint.2013.10.019 Rosso, 2016, Middle Stone Age ochre processing and behavioural complexity in the Horn of Africa: evidence from Porc-Epic Cave, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, PLoS One, 11, 10.1371/journal.pone.0164793 Rosso, 2017, Patterns of change and continuity in ochre use during the late Middle Stone Age of the Horn of Africa: The Porc-Epic Cave record, PLoS One, 12, 10.1371/journal.pone.0177298 Sauer, 1972, Ratite eggshells and phylogenetic questions, Bonn. zoololgische Beiträge, 23, 3 Scerri, 2017, The North African Middle Stone Age and its place in recent human evolution, Evol. Anthropol., 26, 119, 10.1002/evan.21527 Scerri, 2017, Persistence of Middle Stone Age technology to the Pleistocene/Holocene transition supports a complex hominin evolutionary scenario in West Africa, J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep., 11, 639 Scerri, 2018, Did our species evolve in subdivided populations across Africa, and why does it matter?, Trends Ecol. Evol., 33, 582, 10.1016/j.tree.2018.05.005 Scerri, 2019, Beyond multiregional and simple out-of-Africa models of human evolution, Nature Ecol. Evol., 3, 1370, 10.1038/s41559-019-0992-1 Schlebusch, 2017, Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago, Science, 358, 652, 10.1126/science.aao6266 Schönwetter, 1927, Die Eier von Struthio camelus spatzi Stresemann, Ornithol. Monatsber., 35, 13 Shea, 2011, Homo sapiens is as Homo sapiens was: behavioral variability versus “behavioral modernity” in Paleolithic archaeology, Curr. Anthropol., 52, 1, 10.1086/658067 Shipman, 1988, Bone tools: an experimental approach, 303 Shipton, 2018, 78,000-year-old record of Middle and Later stone age innovation in an East African tropical forest, Nat. Commun., 9, 1832, 10.1038/s41467-018-04057-3 Sinclair, 2003 Sinitsyn, 2010, Figurative and decorative art of Kostenki. Chronological and cultural differentiation, 1339 Skoglund, 2017, Reconstructing prehistoric African population structure, Cell, 171, 59, 10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049 Slon, 2018, The genome of the offspring of a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father, Nature, 561, 113, 10.1038/s41586-018-0455-x Soressi, 2007, Pigments, gravures, parures: les comportements symboliques controversés des Néandertaliens, 297 Steele, 2019, Personal Ornaments in Early Prehistory A Review of Shells as Personal Ornamentation during the African Middle Stone Age, PaleoAnthropology, 2019, 24 Storz, 2002, Testing for genetic evidence of population expansion and contraction: an empirical analysis of microsatellite DNA variation using a hierarchical Bayesian model, Evolution, 56, 154, 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb00857.x Stringer, 2002, Modern human origins: progress and prospects, Phil. Trans. Biol. Sci., 357, 563, 10.1098/rstb.2001.1057 Stringer, 1988, Genetic and fossil evidence for the origin of modern humans, Science, 239, 1263, 10.1126/science.3125610 Texier, 2013, The context, form and significance of the MSA engraved ostrich eggshell collection from Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa, J. Archaeolog. Sci., 40, 3412, 10.1016/j.jas.2013.02.021 Tribolo, 2013, OSL and TL dating of the Middle Stone Age sequence at Diepkloof Rock Shelter (South Africa): a clarification, J. Archaeolog. Sci., 40, 3401, 10.1016/j.jas.2012.12.001 Tryon, 2019, The Middle/Later Stone Age transition and cultural dynamics of late Pleistocene East Africa, Evol. Anthropol., 28, 267, 10.1002/evan.21802 Tryon, 2018, Middle and Later Stone Age chronology of Kisese II rockshelter (UNESCO World Heritage Kondoa Rock-Art Sites), Tanzania, PLoS One, 13, 10.1371/journal.pone.0192029 Val, 2016, Deliberate body disposal by hominins in the Dinaledi Chamber, Cradle of Humankind, South Africa, J. Human Evol., 96, 145, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.02.004 Vanhaeren, 2006, Aurignacian ethno-linguistic geography of Europe revealed by personal ornaments, J. Archaeolog. Sci., 33, 1105, 10.1016/j.jas.2005.11.017 Vanhaeren, 2019, Variability in Middle Stone Age symbolic traditions: The marine shell beads from Sibudu Cave, South Africa, J. Archaeolog. Sci. Rep., 27 Villa, 2001, Bone and ivory points in the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic of Europe, J. Human Evol., 41, 69, 10.1006/jhev.2001.0479 Villanea, 2019, Multiple episodes of interbreeding between Neanderthal and modern humans, Nature Ecology & Evolution, 3, 39, 10.1038/s41559-018-0735-8 Vogelsang, 2010, New excavations of Middle Stone Age deposits at Apollo 11 Rockshelter, Namibia: stratigraphy, archaeology, chronology and past environments, J. Afr. Archaeol., 8, 185, 10.3213/1612-1651-10170 Wakeley, 1999, Nonequilibrium migration in human history, Genetics, 153, 1863, 10.1093/genetics/153.4.1863 Watts, 2010, The pigments from Pinnacle Point cave 13B, Western Cape, South Africa, J. Human Evol., 59, 392, 10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.006 Watts, 2016, Early evidence for brilliant ritualized display: Specularite use in the Northern Cape (South Africa) betweeñ 500 and∼ 300 ka, Curr. Anthropol., 57, 287, 10.1086/686484 Wei, 2017, A technological and morphological study of Late Paleolithic ostrich eggshell beads from Shuidonggou, North China, J. Archaeolog. Sci,, 85, 83, 10.1016/j.jas.2017.07.003 Wendt, 1976, 'Art Mobilier' from the Apollo 11 Cave, South West Africa: Africa's Oldest Dated Works of Art, South Afr. Archaeolog. Bull., 31, 5, 10.2307/3888265 White, 2003, Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia, Nature, 423, 742, 10.1038/nature01669 Will, 2019, Timing and trajectory of cultural evolution on the African continent 200,000-30,000 years ago?, 25 Wolf, 2018, Outstanding questions in the study of archaic hominin admixture, PLoS Genetics, 14, 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007349 Yellen, 1998, Barbed bone points: tradition and continuity in Saharan and sub-Saharan Africa, Afr. Archaeolog. Rev., 15, 173, 10.1023/A:1021659928822 Yellen, 1995, A Middle Stone Age worked bone industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire, Science, 268, 553, 10.1126/science.7725100 Zilhão, 2006, Neandertals and moderns mixed, and it matters, Evol. Anthropol., 15, 183, 10.1002/evan.20110 Zilhão, 2017, Precise dating of the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition in Murcia (Spain) supports late Neandertal persistence in Iberia, Heliyon, 3, 10.1016/j.heliyon.2017.e00435