Towards a Systematic Screening Tool for Quality Assurance and Semiautomatic Fraud Detection for Images in the Life Sciences
Tóm tắt
The quality and authenticity of images is essential for data presentation, especially in the life sciences. Questionable images may often be a first indicator for questionable results, too. Therefore, a tool that uses mathematical methods to detect suspicious images in large image archives can be a helpful instrument to improve quality assurance in publications. As a first step towards a systematic screening tool, especially for journal editors and other staff members who are responsible for quality assurance, such as laboratory supervisors, we propose a basic classification of image manipulation. Based on this classification, we developed and explored some simple algorithms to detect copied areas in images. Using an artificial image and two examples of previously published modified images, we apply quantitative methods such as pixel-wise comparison, a nearest neighbor and a variance algorithm to detect copied-and-pasted areas or duplicated images. We show that our algorithms are able to detect some simple types of image alteration, such as copying and pasting background areas. The variance algorithm detects not only identical, but also very similar areas that differ only by brightness. Further types could, in principle, be implemented in a standardized scanning routine. We detected the copied areas in a proven case of image manipulation in Germany and showed the similarity of two images in a retracted paper from the Kato labs, which has been widely discussed on sites such as pubpeer and retraction watch.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Abbott, A., & Schwarz, J. (2002). Dubious data remain in print two years after misconduct inquiry. Nature, 418(6894), 113.
Bik, E. M., Casadevall, A., & Fang, F. C. (2016). The prevalence of inappropriate image duplication in biomedical research publications. mBio, 7(3), e00809-16.
Bohannon, J. (2013). Who’s afraid of peer review? Science, 342(6154), 60–65.
Butler, D. (2006). Doctor admits Lancet study is fiction. Nature, 439(7074), 248–249.
Couzin, J. (2006a). … And how the problems eluded peer reviewers and editors. Science, 311(5757), 23–24.
Couzin, J. (2006b). Don’t pretty up that picture just yet. Science, 314(5807), 1866–1868.
Couzin, J., & Schirber, M. (2006). Scientific misconduct. Fraud upends oral cancer field, casting doubt on prevention trial. Science, 311(5760), 448–449.
Couzin, J., & Unger, K. (2006). Cleaning up the paper trail. Science, 312(5770), 38–43.
Cromey, D. W. (2010). Avoiding twisted pixels: Ethical guidelines for the appropriate use and manipulation of scientific digital images. Science and Engineering Ethics, 16(4), 639–667.
DFG. German Research Foundation (2003). Rüge für Heinz Breer und Johannes Noé. Press release. http://www.dfg.de/service/presse/pressemitteilungen/2003/pressemitteilung_nr_48/index.html. Accessed October 7, 2015.
Kakuk, P. (2009). The legacy of the Hwang case: Research misconduct in biosciences. Science and Engineering Ethics, 15(4), 545–562.
Krueger, J. W. (2002). Forensic examination of questioned scientific images. Accountability in Research, 9(2), 105–125.
Krueger, J. (2012). What do retractions tell us? Newsletter ORI, 21, 1–6.
Logan, R. A., Park, J., & Jeon, H. (2010). The Hwang scandal and Korean news coverage: Ethical considerations. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 25(3), 171–191.
Martinson, B. C., Anderson, M. S., & de Vries, R. (2005). Scientists behaving badly. Nature, 435(7043), 737–738.
Nature. (2016). Guide to Publication policies of the Nature journals. http://www.nature.com/authors/gta.pdf. Accessed September 8, 2016.
Noé, J., & Breer, H. (1998). Functional and molecular characterization of individual olfactory neurons. Journal of Neurochemistry, 71(6), 2286–2293.
R Core Team. (2015). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. http://www.R-project.org/.
Rossner, M. (2008). A false sense of security. The Journal of Cell Biology, 183(4), 573–574.
Retraction Blues. (2013). Nature Medicine, 19(12), 1547–1548.
Schraub, S., & Ayed, F. B. (2010). La fraude en cancérologie. Oncologie, 12(11), 675–681.
Suzawa, M., Takada, I., Yanagisawa, J., Ohtake, F., Ogawa, S., Yamauchi, T., et al. (2003). Cytokines suppress adipogenesis and PPAR-gamma function through the TAK1/TAB 1/NIK cascade. Nature Cell Biology, 5(3), 224–230.
Suzawa, M., Takada, I., Yanagisawa, J., Ohtake, F., Ogawa, S., Yamauchi, T., et al. (2014). Retraction: Cytokines suppress adipogenesis and PPAR-gamma function through the TAK1/TAB 1/NIK cascade. Nature Cell Biology, 16(11), 1126.
Tachibana, M., Amato, P., Sparman, M., Gutierrez, N. M., Tippner-Hedges, R., Ma, H., et al. (2012). Human embryonic stem cells derived by somatic cell nuclear transfer. Cell, 153(6), 1228–1238.
Urbanek, S. (2013a). jpeg: Read and write JPEG images. R package version 0.1-6. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=jpeg.
Urbanek, S. (2013b). png: Read and write PNG images. R package version 0.1-5. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=png.
Wormer, H. (1999, September 3). Fingerabdrücke einer Fälschung. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 55, 11.