The role of SARS-CoV-2 immunosuppression and the therapy used to manage COVID-19 disease in the emergence of opportunistic fungal infections: A review

Ahmadikia, 2021, The double-edged sword of systemic corticosteroid therapy in viral pneumonia: A case report and comparative review of influenza-associated mucormycosis versus COVID-19 associated mucormycosis, Mycoses, 64, 798, 10.1111/myc.13256 Alekseyev, 2021, Rhinocerebral Mucormycosis and COVID-19 Pneumonia, J. Med. Cases., 12, 85, 10.14740/jmc3637 Al-Hatmi, 2021, COVID-19 associated invasive candidiasis, J. Infect., 82, e45, 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.08.005 Allaw, 2021, First Candida auris Outbreak during a COVID-19 Pandemic in a Tertiary-Care Center in Lebanon, Pathogens., 10, 157, 10.3390/pathogens10020157 Amorim dos Santos, 2020, Oral mucosal lesions in a COVID-19 patient: New signs or secondary manifestations?, Int. J. Infect. Dis., 97, 326, 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.06.012 C. Arana, R.E.C. Ramírez, M. Xipell, J. Casals, A. Moreno, S. Herrera, M. Bodro, F. Cofan, F. Diekmann, N. Esforzado, Mucormycosis associated with covid19 in two kidney transplant patients, Transpl. Infect. Dis. n/a (2021) e13652. https://doi.org/10.1111/tid.13652. Ashour, 2021, Imaging spectrum of acute invasive fungal rhino-orbital-cerebral sinusitis in COVID-19 patients: A case series and a review of literature, J. Neuroradiol., 48, 319, 10.1016/j.neurad.2021.05.007 M. Bartoletti, R. Pascale, M. Cricca, M. Rinaldi, A. Maccaro, L. Bussini, G. Fornaro, T. Tonetti, G. Pizzilli, E. Francalanci, L. Giuntoli, A. Rubin, A. Moroni, S. Ambretti, F. Trapani, O. Vatamanu, V.M. Ranieri, A. Castelli, M. Baiocchi, R. Lewis, M. Giannella, P. Viale, PREDICO Study Group, Epidemiology of Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis Among Intubated Patients With COVID-19: A Prospective Study, Clin. Infect. Dis. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1065. Basso, 2021, COVID-19-Associated Histoplasmosis in an AIDS Patient, Mycopathologia, 186, 109, 10.1007/s11046-020-00505-1 Bayram, 2021, Susceptibility of severe COVID-19 patients to rhino-orbital mucormycosis fungal infection in different clinical manifestations, Jpn. J. Ophthalmol., 65, 515, 10.1007/s10384-021-00845-5 Bellanger, 2021, Mixed mold infection with Aspergillus fumigatus and Rhizopus microsporus in a severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) patient, Infect. Dis. Now., 10.1016/j.idnow.2021.01.010 Bertolini, 2020, COVID-19 associated with AIDS-related disseminated histoplasmosis: a case report, Int. J. STD AIDS., 31, 1222, 10.1177/0956462420957518 Bhat, 2020, Concurrent COVID-19 and Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in a severely immunocompromised 25-year-old patient, Int. J. Infect. Dis., 99, 119, 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.07.061 Bhatt, 2021, High mortality co-infections of COVID-19 patients: mucormycosis and other fungal infections, Discoveries., 9, e126, 10.15190/d.2021.5 Blaize, 2020, COVID-19–related Respiratory Failure and Lymphopenia Do Not Seem Associated with Pneumocystosis, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 202, 1734, 10.1164/rccm.202007-2938LE Borchmann, 2021, Pneumocystis pneumonia and HIV infection in two patients suspected with COVID-19, Ugeskr. Laeger., 183, V09200673 K.D. Brizendine, J.W. Baddley, P.G. Pappas, Predictors of Mortality and Differences in Clinical Features among Patients with Cryptococcosis According to Immune Status, PLoS ONE. 8 (2013) e60431. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0060431. Broadhurst, 2021, The diagnostic challenge of pneumocystis pneumonia and COVID-19 co-infection in HIV, Respirol. Case Rep., 9, 10.1002/rcr2.725 Cafardi, 2021, Opportunistic Fungal Infection Associated with COVID-19, Open Forum Infect. Dis., 10.1093/ofid/ofab016 Cai, 2020, A complex COVID-19 case with rheumatoid arthritis treated with tocilizumab, Clin. Rheumatol., 39, 2797, 10.1007/s10067-020-05234-w CDC, Pneumocystis pneumonia, (2021). https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/pneumocystis-pneumonia/index.html (accessed June 8, 2022). CDC, Treatment for C. neoformans Infection, (2021). https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/cryptococcosis-neoformans/treatment.html (accessed June 11, 2021). CDC, Where Mucormycosis Comes From | Mucormycosis | CDC, (2021). https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/mucormycosis/causes.html (accessed June 8, 2021). Chakraborti, 2018, A Prospective Study of Fungal Colonization and Invasive Fungal Disease in Long-Term Mechanically Ventilated Patients in a Respiratory Intensive Care Unit, Indian J. Crit. Care Med. Peer-Rev. Off. Publ. Indian Soc, Crit. Care Med., 22, 597 Chen, 2020, Clinical progression of patients with COVID-19 in Shanghai, China, J. Infect., 80, e1, 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.004 V.K. Chennamchetty, S. Adimulapu, B.P. Kola, M.D. Padua, A. C, M.K. Verma, M.V.R. Rao, Post-COVID pulmonary mucormycosis- A case report, IP Indian J. Immunol. Respir. Med. 6 (2021) 62–66. https://doi.org/10.18231/j.ijirm.2021.014. Chiappe Gonzalez, 2020, Hospital-acquired SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in a person living with HIV, Int. J. STD AIDS., 31, 1320, 10.1177/0956462420957528 Chong, 2021, Incidence, diagnosis and outcomes of COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis (CAPA): a systematic review, J. Hosp. Infect., 113, 115, 10.1016/j.jhin.2021.04.012 A. Chowdhary, B. Tarai, A. Singh, A. Sharma, Multidrug-Resistant Candida auris Infections in Critically Ill Coronavirus Disease Patients, India, April-July 2020, Emerg. Infect. Dis. 26 (2020) 2694–2696. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2611.203504. Choy, 2020, It’s not all about COVID-19: pneumocystis pneumonia in the era of a respiratory outbreak, J. Int. AIDS Soc., 23, 10.1002/jia2.25533 Coleman, 2020, COVID-19 and Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia: a diagnostic dilemma in HIV, AIDS Lond. Engl., 34, 1258, 10.1097/QAD.0000000000002571 Corchuelo, 2020, Oral manifestations in a patient with a history of asymptomatic COVID-19: Case report, Int. J. Infect. Dis., 100, 154, 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.08.071 Cornely, 2019, Global guideline for the diagnosis and management of mucormycosis: an initiative of the European Confederation of Medical Mycology in cooperation with the Mycoses Study Group Education and Research Consortium, Lancet Infect. Dis., 19, e405, 10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30312-3 Dallalzadeh, 2021, Secondary infection with rhino-orbital cerebral mucormycosis associated with COVID-19, Orbit Amst. Neth., 1 De Francesco, 2020, Pneumocystis jirevocii and SARS-CoV-2 Co-Infection: A Common Feature in Transplant Recipients?, Vaccines., 8, 544, 10.3390/vaccines8030544 de Macedo, 2021, Acute Pulmonary Histoplasmosis Following COVID-19: Novel Laboratorial Methods Aiding Diagnosis, J. Fungi., 7, 346, 10.3390/jof7050346 Falces‐Romero, 2020, Isolation of Aspergillus spp. in respiratory samples of patients with COVID-19 in a Spanish Tertiary Care Hospital, Mycoses, 63, 1144, 10.1111/myc.13155 Gandra, 2021, The “Black Fungus” in India: The Emerging Syndemic of COVID-19–Associated Mucormycosis, Ann. Intern. Med., 174, 1301, 10.7326/M21-2354 Garg, 2021, Coronavirus Disease (Covid-19) Associated Mucormycosis (CAM): Case Report and Systematic Review of Literature, Mycopathologia, 186, 289, 10.1007/s11046-021-00528-2 H. Ghanem, G. Sivasubramanian, Cryptococcus neoformans Meningoencephalitis in an Immunocompetent Patient after COVID-19 Infection, Case Rep. Infect. Dis. 2021 (2021) e5597473. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5597473. Guan, 2020, Comorbidity and its impact on 1590 patients with COVID-19 in China: a nationwide analysis, Eur. Respir. J., 55, 2000547, 10.1183/13993003.00547-2020 Hao, 2020, Long-Term Modeling of SARS-CoV-2 Infection of In Vitro Cultured Polarized Human Airway Epithelium, MBio., 11, e02852, 10.1128/mBio.02852-20 Hassan, 2020, Coronavirus (COVID-19): A Review of Clinical Features, Diagnosis, and Treatment, Cureus., 12 Henao-Martínez, 2016, RISK FACTORS FOR CRYPTOCOCCAL MENINGITIS — A SINGLE UNITED STATES CENTER EXPERIENCE, Mycopathologia, 181, 807, 10.1007/s11046-016-0048-x Herbrecht, 2002, Invasive Fungal Infections Group of the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer and the Global Aspergillus Study Group, Voriconazole versus amphotericin B for primary therapy of invasive aspergillosis, N. Engl. J. Med., 347, 408, 10.1056/NEJMoa020191 Herold, 2015, Influenza virus-induced lung injury: pathogenesis and implications for treatment, Eur. Respir. J., 45, 1463, 10.1183/09031936.00186214 Hochhegger, 2021, COVID-19 mimics on chest CT: a pictorial review and radiologic guide, Br. J. Radiol., 94, 20200703, 10.1259/bjr.20200703 Huffnagle, 2013, The emerging world of the fungal microbiome, Trends Microbiol., 21, 334, 10.1016/j.tim.2013.04.002 Hughes, 2020, Bacterial and fungal coinfection among hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study in a UK secondary-care setting, Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 26, 1395, 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.06.025 Ichai, 2020, Impact of negative air pressure in ICU rooms on the risk of pulmonary aspergillosis in COVID-19 patients, Crit. Care., 24, 538, 10.1186/s13054-020-03221-w Iranmanesh, 2020, Oral manifestations of COVID-19 disease: A review article, Dermatol. Ther., 34 Iyer, 2021, Treatment strategies for cryptococcal infection: challenges, advances and future outlook, Nat. Rev. Microbiol., 19, 454, 10.1038/s41579-021-00511-0 Jeican, 2021, COVID-19 and Pneumocystis jirovecii Pulmonary Coinfection—The First Case Confirmed through Autopsy, Medicina (Mex.), 57, 302, 10.3390/medicina57040302 Jeong, 2019, The epidemiology and clinical manifestations of mucormycosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of case reports, Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Off. Publ. Eur. Soc. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 25, 26 Jiang, 2020, T cell subset counts in peripheral blood can be used as discriminatory biomarkers for diagnosis and severity prediction of COVID-19, J. Infect. Dis., 222, 198, 10.1093/infdis/jiaa252 John, 2021, When Uncontrolled Diabetes Mellitus and Severe COVID-19 Converge: The Perfect Storm for Mucormycosis, J. Fungi., 7, 298, 10.3390/jof7040298 Johnson, 2021, Pulmonary aspergillosis and mucormycosis in a patient with COVID-19, Med. Mycol. Case Rep., 32, 64, 10.1016/j.mmcr.2021.03.006 Kanwar, 2021, A Fatal Case of Rhizopus azygosporus Pneumonia Following COVID-19, J. Fungi., 7, 174, 10.3390/jof7030174 M. Karimi-Galougahi, S. Arastou, S. Haseli, Fulminant mucormycosis complicating coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), Int. Forum Allergy Rhinol. 11 (2021) 1029–1030. https://doi.org/10.1002/alr.22785. Kelly, 2020, Pneumocystis pneumonia, a COVID-19 mimic, reminds us of the importance of HIV testing in COVID-19, Clin. Med., 20, 590, 10.7861/clinmed.2020-0565 Khan, 2020, A case report of COVID-19 associated pulmonary mucormycosis, Arch Clin Cases, 07, 46, 10.22551/2020.28.0703.10172 Khatib, 2020, Cryptococcemia in a patient with COVID-19: A case report, Clin. Case Rep., 9, 853, 10.1002/ccr3.3668 Khatri, 2021, Mucormycosis after Coronavirus disease 2019 infection in a heart transplant recipient – Case report and review of literature, J. Mycol. Medicale., 31, 101125, 10.1016/j.mycmed.2021.101125 Kimmig, 2020, IL-6 Inhibition in Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients Is Associated With Increased Secondary Infections, Front. Med., 7, 10.3389/fmed.2020.583897 P. Koehler, M. Bassetti, A. Chakrabarti, S.C.A. Chen, A.L. Colombo, M. Hoenigl, N. Klimko, C. Lass-Flörl, R.O. Oladele, D.C. Vinh, L.-P. Zhu, B. Böll, R. Brüggemann, J.-P. Gangneux, J.R. Perfect, T.F. Patterson, T. Persigehl, J.F. Meis, L. Ostrosky-Zeichner, P.L. White, P.E. Verweij, O.A. Cornely, Defining and managing COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis: the 2020 ECMM/ISHAM consensus criteria for research and clinical guidance, Lancet Infect. Dis. 21 (2021) e149–e162. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30847-1. Krishna, 2021, Autoptic identification of disseminated mucormycosis in a young male presenting with cerebrovascular event, multi-organ dysfunction and COVID-19 infection, IDCases., 25, 10.1016/j.idcr.2021.e01172 Kuehn, 2021, Drug-Resistant Yeast Infections Spread in COVID-19 Unit, JAMA, 325, 714 Lahmer, 2021, Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia: Results from the prospective AspCOVID-19 study, PLoS ONE, 16, e0238825, 10.1371/journal.pone.0238825 Lai, 2021, COVID-19 associated with pulmonary aspergillosis: A literature review, J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. Wei Mian Yu Gan Ran Za Zhi., 54, 46, 10.1016/j.jmii.2020.09.004 Lai, 2020, Co-infections among patients with COVID-19: The need for combination therapy with non-anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents?, J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect., 53, 505, 10.1016/j.jmii.2020.05.013 Larzábal, 2020, Simultaneous diagnosis and favorable evolution of infection with Pneumocystis jirovecii, SARS-CoV-2 and advanced HIV, Medicina (Mex.), 80, 554 Machado, 2021, Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in the COVID-19 era: An expected new entity, Mycoses, 64, 132, 10.1111/myc.13213 Maini, 2021, Sino-orbital mucormycosis in a COVID-19 patient: A case report, Int. J. Surg. Case Rep., 82, 10.1016/j.ijscr.2021.105957 Mang, 2020, Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Coinfection in a Patient With Newly Diagnosed HIV-1 Infection, Clin. Infect. Dis., 72, 1487, 10.1093/cid/ciaa906 Maziarz, 2016, Cryptococcosis, Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am., 30, 179, 10.1016/j.idc.2015.10.006 Mehta, 2020, Rhino-Orbital Mucormycosis Associated With COVID-19, Cureus., 12 Mekonnen, 2021, Acute Invasive Rhino-Orbital Mucormycosis in a Patient With COVID-19-Associated Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, Ophthal, Plast. Reconstr. Surg., 37, e40, 10.1097/IOP.0000000000001889 Menon, 2020, A Case of COVID-19 and Pneumocystis jirovecii Coinfection, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 202, 136, 10.1164/rccm.202003-0766LE Merchant, 2021, Co-infection with coronavirus disease 2019, previously undiagnosed human immunodeficiency virus, Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia and cytomegalovirus pneumonitis, with possible immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome, IDCases., 24 Meshram, 2021, Mucormycosis in post-COVID-19 renal transplant patients: A lethal complication in follow-up, Transpl. Infect. Dis. Off. J. Transplant. Soc., 10.1111/tid.13663 Messina, 2020, Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in a Patient with Disseminated Histoplasmosis and HIV-A Case Report from Argentina and Literature Review, J. Fungi Basel Switz., 6, 275, 10.3390/jof6040275 Monneret, 2020, Immune monitoring of interleukin-7 compassionate use in a critically ill COVID-19 patient, Cell. Mol. Immunol., 17, 1001, 10.1038/s41423-020-0516-6 Monte Junior, 2020, Rare and Fatal Gastrointestinal Mucormycosis (Zygomycosis) in a COVID-19 Patient: A Case Report, Clin. Endosc., 53, 746, 10.5946/ce.2020.180 Moorthy, 2021, SARS-CoV-2, Uncontrolled Diabetes and Corticosteroids—An Unholy Trinity in Invasive Fungal Infections of the Maxillofacial Region? A Retrospective, Multi-centric Analysis, J. Maxillofac. Oral Surg., 20, 418, 10.1007/s12663-021-01532-1 Murthy, 2020, Care for Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19, JAMA, 323, 1499, 10.1001/jama.2020.3633 Nehara, 2021, Rhinocerebral mucormycosis in COVID-19 patient with diabetes a deadly trio: Case series from the north-western part of India, Indian, J. Med. Microbiol., 39, 380, 10.1016/j.ijmmb.2021.05.009 Pasero, 2021, A challenging complication following SARS-CoV-2 infection: a case of pulmonary mucormycosis, Infection, 49, 1055, 10.1007/s15010-020-01561-x Passarelli, 2020, Detected SARS-CoV-2 in Ascitic Fluid Followed by Cryptococcemia: a Case Report, Sn Compr, Clin. Med., 2, 2414 Patel, 2021, MucoCovi Network3, Multicenter Epidemiologic Study of Coronavirus Disease-Associated Mucormycosis, India, Emerg. Infect. Dis., 27, 2349, 10.3201/eid2709.210934 R.K. Patti, N.R. Dalsania, N. Somal, A. Sinha, S. Mehta, M. Ghitan, C. Seneviratne, Y. Kupfer, Subacute Aspergillosis “Fungal Balls” Complicating COVID-19, J. Investig. Med. High Impact Case Rep. 8 (2020) 2324709620966475. https://doi.org/10.1177/2324709620966475. Petrikkos, 2018, Recent Advances in the Pathogenesis of Mucormycoses, Clin. Ther., 40, 894, 10.1016/j.clinthera.2018.03.009 Placik, 2020, Bronchopleural fistula development in the setting of novel therapies for acute respiratory distress syndrome in SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia, Radiol. Case Rep., 15, 2378, 10.1016/j.radcr.2020.09.026 Posteraro, 2020, Pan-Echinocandin-Resistant Candida glabrata Bloodstream Infection Complicating COVID-19: A Fatal Case Report, J. Fungi Basel Switz., 6, 163, 10.3390/jof6030163 Prabhu, 2004, Mucormycosis and entomophthoramycosis: a review of the clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment, Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Off. Publ. Eur. Soc. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 10, 31 Quintana-Ortega, 2021, Fatal outcome of anti-MDA5 juvenile dermatomyositis in a paediatric COVID-19 patient: a case report, Mod. Rheumatol. Case Rep., 5, 101, 10.1080/24725625.2020.1832755 Rabagliati, 2021, COVID-19–Associated Mold Infection in Critically Ill Patients, Chile, Emerg. Infect. Dis., 27, 1454, 10.3201/eid2705.204412 Rao, 2021, Orbital infarction syndrome secondary to rhino-orbital mucormycosis in a case of COVID-19: Clinico-radiological features, Indian J. Ophthalmol., 69, 1627, 10.4103/ijo.IJO_1053_21 Ravani, 2021, Rise of the phoenix: Mucormycosis in COVID-19 times, Indian J. Ophthalmol., 69, 1563, 10.4103/ijo.IJO_310_21 Riad, 2021, Oral candidiasis of COVID-19 patients: Case report and review of evidence, J. Cosmet. Dermatol., 20, 1580, 10.1111/jocd.14066 Riley, 2016, Breaking the Mold: A Review of Mucormycosis and Current Pharmacological Treatment Options, Ann. Pharmacother., 50, 747, 10.1177/1060028016655425 Salehi, 2020, Oropharyngeal candidiasis in hospitalised COVID-19 patients from Iran: Species identification and antifungal susceptibility pattern, Mycoses, 63, 771, 10.1111/myc.13137 Salmanton-García, 2021, COVID-19–Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis, Emerg. Infect. Dis., 27, 1077, 10.3201/eid2704.204895 Saltzman, 1987, Immunodeficiency of the elderly, Rev. Infect. Dis., 9, 1127, 10.1093/clinids/9.6.1127 Sarkar, 2021, COVID-19 and orbital mucormycosis, Indian J. Ophthalmol., 69, 1002, 10.4103/ijo.IJO_3763_20 Sebastian, 2021, Covid Assossiated Invasive Fungal Sinusitis, Indian, J. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg., 1 Sen, 2021, Mucor in a Viral Land: A Tale of Two Pathogens, Indian J. Ophthalmol., 69, 244, 10.4103/ijo.IJO_3774_20 Sharma, 2021, Post coronavirus disease mucormycosis: a deadly addition to the pandemic spectrum, J. Laryngol. Otol., 135, 442, 10.1017/S0022215121000992 Song, 2020, Fungal Co-infections Associated with Global COVID-19 Pandemic: A Clinical and Diagnostic Perspective from China, Mycopathologia, 185, 599, 10.1007/s11046-020-00462-9 G. Spiteri, J. Fielding, M. Diercke, C. Campese, V. Enouf, A. Gaymard, A. Bella, P. Sognamiglio, M.J. Sierra Moros, A.N. Riutort, Y.V. Demina, R. Mahieu, M. Broas, M. Bengnér, S. Buda, J. Schilling, L. Filleul, A. Lepoutre, C. Saura, A. Mailles, D. Levy-Bruhl, B. Coignard, S. Bernard-Stoecklin, S. Behillil, S. van der Werf, M. Valette, B. Lina, F. Riccardo, E. Nicastri, I. Casas, A. Larrauri, M. Salom Castell, F. Pozo, R.A. Maksyutov, C. Martin, M. Van Ranst, N. Bossuyt, L. Siira, J. Sane, K. Tegmark-Wisell, M. Palmérus, E.K. Broberg, J. Beauté, P. Jorgensen, N. Bundle, D. Pereyaslov, C. Adlhoch, J. Pukkila, R. Pebody, S. Olsen, B.C. Ciancio, First cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the WHO European Region, 24 January to 21 February 2020, Eurosurveillance. 25 (2020) 2000178. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.9.2000178. Stasiak, 2021, Case Report: Incidental Finding of COVID-19 Infection after Positron Emission Tomography/CT Imaging in a Patient with a Diagnosis of Histoplasmosis and Recurring Fever, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 104, 1651, 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0952 Tabarsi, 2021 Tavakolpour, 2020, Lymphopenia during the COVID-19 infection: What it shows and what can be learned, Immunol. Lett., 225, 31, 10.1016/j.imlet.2020.06.013 van Arkel, 2020, COVID-19–associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 202, 132, 10.1164/rccm.202004-1038LE Veisi, 2022, Rhino-orbital mucormycosis during steroid therapy in COVID-19 patients: A case report, Eur. J. Ophthalmol., 32, NP11, 10.1177/11206721211009450 Viceconte, 2021, “Federico II” COVID-19 Team, Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in an immunocompetent patient recovered from COVID-19, Infect. Dis. Lond. Engl., 53, 382, 10.1080/23744235.2021.1890331 Villanueva-Lozano, 2021, Outbreak of Candida auris infection in a COVID-19 hospital in Mexico, Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 27, 813, 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.12.030 Waizel-Haiat, 2021, A Case of Fatal Rhino-Orbital Mucormycosis Associated With New Onset Diabetic Ketoacidosis and COVID-19, Cureus., 13 Wang, 2020, Clinical characteristics of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with COVID-19 in Zhejiang, China: a retrospective case series, Crit. Care., 24, 299, 10.1186/s13054-020-03046-7 Werthman-Ehrenreich, 2021, Mucormycosis with orbital compartment syndrome in a patient with COVID-19, Am. J. Emerg. Med., 42, e5 L.J. Wheat, A.G. Freifeld, M.B. Kleiman, J.W. Baddley, D.S. McKinsey, J.E. Loyd, C.A. Kauffman, Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Histoplasmosis: 2007 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Clin. Infect. Dis. 45 (2007) 807–825. https://doi.org/10.1086/521259. WHO, WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard, (2021). https://covid19.who.int (accessed June 5, 2021). Yang, 2020, novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19): A multi-center study in Wenzhou city, Zhejiang, China, J. Infect., 80, 388, 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.02.016 Zhu, 2020, Morphogenesis and cytopathic effect of SARS-CoV-2 infection in human airway epithelial cells, Nat. Commun., 11, 3910, 10.1038/s41467-020-17796-z Zurl, 2021, Autopsy Proven Pulmonary Mucormycosis Due to Rhizopus microsporus in a Critically Ill COVID-19 Patient with Underlying Hematological Malignancy, J. Fungi., 7, 88, 10.3390/jof7020088