The relationship between students’ preferred approaches to learning and behaviors during learning: An examination of the process stage of the 3P model
Tóm tắt
Student approaches to learning have been a popular area of research in educational psychology. One useful framework for understanding student approaches to learning is through Biggs’ presage–process–product model. The purpose of this study is to examine the process stage of the 3P model. Undergraduate students (N = 67) thought aloud while reading two science texts, then wrote recalls and answered comprehension questions. As hypothesized, a deep approach to learning was positively associated with making connections, examining the logic in the text, and accurate answers to the comprehension questions. Mediation analyses indicated that behavior during the process of learning explained the positive association between a deep approach to learning and accurate answers to the comprehension questions. No hypotheses regarding a surface approach to learning were supported. The findings from this study support the characterization that students with a deep approach to learning engage meaningfully with their course material. These findings are discussed in the context of the 3P model.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Baeten, M., Dochy, F., & Struyven, K. (2008). Students’ approaches to learning and assessment preferences in a portfolio-based learning environment. Instructional Science, 36(5–6), 359–374. doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9060-y.
Baker, J., Dunlosky, J., & Hertzog, C. (2010). How accurately can older adults evaluate the quality of their text recall? The effect of providing standards on judgment accuracy. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(1), 134–147. doi:10.1002/acp.1553.
Biggs, J. B. (1987). The learning process questionnaire (LPQ) manual. Hawthorn, VIC: Australian Council for Educational Research.
Biggs, J. B. (1993a). From theory to practice: A cognitive systems approach. Higher Education Research & Development, 12(1), 73–85. doi:10.1080/0729436930120107.
Biggs, J. B. (1993b). What do inventories of students’ learning processes really measure? A theoretical review and clarification. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 63(1), 3–18. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1993.tb01038.x.
Biggs, J. (2001). Enhancing learning: A matter of style or approach? In R. J. Sternberg & L. F. Zhang (Eds.), Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles (pp. 73–102). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Biggs, J. (2003). Teaching for quality learning at university (2nd ed.). Birkshire: Open University Press.
Biggs, J., Kember, D., & Leung, D. Y. P. (2001). The revised two-factor study process questionnaire: R-SPQ-2F. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 133–149. doi:10.1348/000709901158433.
Bohn-Gettler, C. M., & Rapp, D. N. (2011). Depending on my mood: Mood-driven influences on text comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(3), 562. doi:10.1037/a0023458.
Burbules, N., & Berk, R. (1999). Critical thinking and critical pedagogy: Relations, differences, and limits. In T. Popkewitz & L. Fendler (Eds.), Critical theories in education (pp. 45–65). New York: Routledge.
Cano, F. (2005). Epistemological beliefs and approaches to learning: Their change through secondary school and their influence on academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 203–221. doi:10.1348/000709904X22683.
Cavallo, A. M. L., & Schafer, L. E. (1994). Relationships between students’ meaningful learning orientation and their understanding of genetics topics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31, 393–418. doi:10.1002/tea.3660310408.
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2008). Personality, intelligence, and approaches to learning as predictors of academic performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(7), 1596–1603. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.01.003.
Chan, K. (2003). Hong Kong teacher education students’ epistemological beliefs and approaches to learning. Research in Education, 69, 36–50. Retrieved from http://repository.ied.edu.hk/dspace/handle/2260.2/5451.
Chan, K. W., & Leung, M. T. (2001, December). Construct validity and psychometric properties of the revised two-factor study process questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) in the Hong Kong context. Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE) Conference, 2001. Retrieved June 1, 2010, from http://www.aare.edu.au/01pap/cha01708.htm.
Chin, C. (2001). Learning in science: What do students’ questions tell us about their thinking? Education Journal, 29(2), 85–103. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net.
Chin, C., & Brown, D. E. (2000). Learning in science: A comparison of deep and surface approaches. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(2), 109–138. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736.
Choy, J. L. F., O’Grady, G., & Rotgans, J. I. (2012). Is the study process questionnaire (SPQ) a good predictor of academic achievement? Examining the mediating role of achievement-related classroom behaviours. Instructional Science, 40(1), 159–172. doi:10.1007/s11251-011-9171-8.
Christensen, C. A., Massey, D. R., & Isaacs, P. J. (1991). Cognitive strategies and study habits: An analysis of the measurement of tertiary students’ learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 61(3), 290–299. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1991.tb00986.x.
Clinton, V., & van den Broek, P. (2012). Interest, inferences, and learning from texts. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(6), 650–663. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.07.004.
Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671–684. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X.
Craik, F. I., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3), 268–294. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.268.
Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K. J., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability, and convergent validity. Psychological Science, 12(2), 163–170. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00328.
Duff, A., & McKinstry, S. (2007). Students’ approaches to learning. Issues in Accounting Education, 22(2), 183–214. doi:10.2308/iace.2007.22.2.183.
Elias, R. Z. (2005). Students’ approaches to study in introductory accounting courses. Journal of Education for Business, 80(4), 194–199. doi:10.3200/JOEB.80.4.194-199.
Ellis, R.A., Ginns, P., & Piggott, L. (2009). E-learning in higher education: Some key aspects and their relationship to approaches to study. Higher Education Research & Development, 28(3), 303–318. doi:10.1080/07294360902839909.
English, L., Luckett, P., & Mladenovic, R. (2004). Encouraging a deep approach to learning through curriculum design. Accounting Education, 13(4), 461–488. doi:10.1080/0963928042000306828.
Entwistle, N. (1987). Motivation to learn: Conceptualisations and practicalities. British Journal of Educational Studies, 35(2), 129–148. doi:10.1080/00071005.1987.9973757.
Entwistle, N. E. (2000). Promoting deep learning through teaching and assessment: Conceptual frameworks and educational contexts. ESRC Teaching and Learning Research Programme Conference, Leicester. Retrieved from http://www.ed.ac.uk/etl/publications.html.
Entwistle, N., & McCune, V. (2004). The conceptual bases of study strategy inventories. Educational Psychology Review, 16(4), 325–345. doi:10.1007/s10648-004-0003-0.
Entwistle, N., McCune, V., & Walker, P. (2001). Conceptions, styles, and approaches within higher education. Analytical abstractions and everyday experience. In R. J. Sternberg & L. F. Zhang (Eds.), Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles (pp. 103–136). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Entwistle, N., & Peterson, E. R. (2004). Conceptions of learning and knowledge in higher education: Relationships with study behavior and influences of learning environments. International Journal of Educational Research, 41(6), 407–428. doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2005.08.009.
Entwistle, N., & Tait, H. (1990). Approaches to learning, evaluations of teaching, and preferences for contrasting academic environments. Higher Education, 19(2), 169–194. doi:10.1007/BF00137106.
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Evans, C. J., Kirby, J. R., & Fabrigar, L. R. (2003). Approaches to learning, need for cognition, and strategic flexibility among university students. British Journal Educational Psychology, 73, 507–528. doi:10.1348/000709903322591217.
Fryer, L. K., Ginns, P., Walker, R. A., & Nakao, K. (2011). The adaptation and validation of the CEQ and the R-SPQ-2F to the Japanese tertiary environment. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 549–563. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.2011.02045.x.
Gijbels, D., Segers, M., & Struyf, E. (2008). Constructivist learning environments and the (im) possibility to change students’ perceptions of assessment demands and approaches to learning. Instructional Science, 36(5–6), 431–443. doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9060-y.
Gljbels, D., & Dochy, F. (2006). Students’ assessment preferences and approaches to learning: Can formative assessment make a difference? Educational Studies, 32(4), 399–409. doi:10.1080/03055690600850354.
Graesser, A. C., Singer, M., & Trabasso, T. (1994). Constructing inferences during narrative text comprehension. Psychological Review, 101(3), 371–395. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.101.3.371.
Hall, M., Ramsay, A., & Raven, J. (2004). Changing the learning environment to promote deep learning approaches in first-year accounting students. Accounting Education: An International Journal, 13(4), 489–505. doi:10.1080/0963928042000306837.
Heikkilä, A., & Lonka, K. (2006). Studying in higher education: Students’ approaches to learning, self-regulation, and cognitive strategies. Studies in Higher Education, 31(1), 99–117. doi:10.1080/03075070500392433.
Justicia, F., Pichardo, M. C., Cano, F., Berben, A. B. G., & De la Fuente, J. (2008). The revised two-factor study process questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F): Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses at item level. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 23(3), 355–372. doi:10.1007/BF03173004.
Kamalski, J. (2004). How to measure the situation model. In A. Kerkhoff, J. de Lange, & O. S. Leicht (Eds.), Yearbook Utrecht Institute of Linguistics (pp. 121–134). Retrieved from http://www-uilots.let.uu.nl/research/Publications/Yearbook2004.pdf#page=129.
Kardash, C. M., & Howell, K. L. (2000). Effects of epistemological beliefs and topic-specific beliefs on undergraduates’ cognitive and strategic processing of dual-positional text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(3), 524. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.3.524.
Kember, D., & Gow, L. (1989). A model of student approaches to learning encompassing ways to influence and change approaches. Instructional Science, 18(4), 263–288. doi:10.1007/BF00118014.
Kim, J. Y., & Anderson, T. (2011). Reading across the curriculum: A framework for improving the reading abilities and habits of college students. Journal of College Literacy & Learning, 37, 29–40. Retrieved from http://www.j-cll.com/files/37_Kim_Anderson.pdf.
Kincaid, J. P., Fishburne, R. P., Rogers, R. L., & Chissom, B. S. (1975). Derivation of New Readability Formulas (Automated Readability Index, Fog Count and Flesch Reading Ease Formula) for Navy Enlisted Personnel. Memphis, TN: Naval Air Station.
Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Kirby, J. R., & Pedwell, D. (1991). Students’ approaches to summarisation. Educational Psychology, 11(3–4), 297–307. doi:10.1080/0144341910110306.
Lehman, S., & Schraw, G. (2002). Effects of coherence and relevance on shallow and deep text processing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(4), 738. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.94.4.738.
Linderholm, T., & van den Broek, P. (2002). The effects of reading purpose and working memory capacity on the processing of expository text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(4), 778–784. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.94.4.778.
Macdonald, J. (2002). ‘Getting it Together and Being Put on the Spot’: Synopsis, motivation and examination. Studies in Higher Education, 27(3), 329–338. doi:10.1080/03075070220000707.
Magliano, J. P., & Graesser, A. C. (1991). A three-pronged method for studying inference generation in literary text. Poetics, 20(3), 193–232. doi:10.1016/0304-422X(91)90007-C.
Marton, F., & Saljo, R. (1984). Approaches to learning. In F. Marton, D. Hounsell, & Y. N. Entwistle (Eds.), The experience of learning (pp. 36–55). Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.
Marton, F., & Säljö, R. (1976). On qualitative differences in learning: Outcome and process. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 4–11. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1976.tb02980.x.
McCormick, J., Hafner, A. L., & Saint-Germain, M. (2013). From high school to college: Teachers and students assess the impact of an expository reading and writing course on college readiness. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 3(1), 3. Retrieved from http://www.publishing.waldenu.edu/jerap/vol3/iss1/3/.
McCrae, R. R., Kurtz, J. E., Yamagata, S., & Terracciano, A. (2011). Internal consistency, retest reliability, and their implications for personality scale validity. Personality and social psychology review, 15(1), 28–50. doi:10.1177/1088868310366253.
McMaster, K. L., van den Broek, P., Espin, C.A., White, M. J., Rapp, D. N., Kendeou, P., Bohn-Gettler, C.M., & Carlson, S. (2012). Making the right connections: Differential effects of reading intervention for subgroups of comprehenders. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(1), 100–111. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.11.017.
McNamara, D. S. (2004). SERT: Self explanation reading training. Discourse Processes, 38, 1–30. doi:10.1207/s15326950dp3801_1.
McNamara, D. S., Kintsch, E., Songer, N. B., & Kintsch, W. (1996). Are good texts always better? Interactions of text coherence, background knowledge, and levels of understanding in learning from text. Cognition and Instruction, 14(1), 1–43. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1401_1.
McNamara, D. S., Levinstein, I. B., & Boonthum, C. (2004). iSTART: Interactive strategy training for active reading and thinking. Behavior Research Methods, 35(2), 222–233. doi:10.3758/BF03195567.
McNamara, D. S., O’Reilly, T., Rowe, M., Boonthum, C., & Levinstein, I. (2007). iSTART: A web-based tutor that teaches self-explanation and metacognitive reading strategies. In D. S. McNamara (Ed.), Reading comprehension strategies: Theories, interventions, & technologies (pp. 397–420). New York: Erlbaum.
Novak, J. D. (2002). Meaningful learning: The essential factor for conceptual change in limited or appropriate propositional hierarchies (LIPHS) leading to empowerment of learners. Science Education, 86, 548–571. doi:10.1002/sce.10032.
Pedrosa de Jesus, H. T., Almeida, P. A., Teixeira-Dias, J. J., & Watts, M. (2006). Students’ questions: Building a bridge between Kolb’s learning styles and approaches to learning. Education and Training, 48(2), 97–111. doi:10.1108/00400910610651746.
Phan, H. P. (2008). Predicting change in epistemological beliefs, reflective thinking, and learning styles: A longitudinal study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(1), 75–93. doi:10.1348/000709907X204354.
Pithers, R. T., & Soden, R. (2000). Critical thinking in education: A review. Educational Research, 42(3), 237–249. doi:10.1080/001318800440579.
Pituch, K. A., & Stapleton, K. M. (2008). The performance of methods to test upper-level mediation in the presence of nonnormal data. Multivariate Behavior Research, 43, 237–267. doi:10.1080/00273170802034844.
Platow, M. J., Mavor, K. I., & Grace, D. M. (2013). On the role of discipline-related self-concept in deep and surface approaches to learning among university students. Instructional Science, 41(2), 271–285. doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9227-4.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 36(4), 717–731. doi:10.3758/BF03206553.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879.
Pressley, M., & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal reports of reading: The nature of constructively responsive reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 353–387. doi:10.1037/a0026838.
Rose, N. S., & Craik, F. I. (2012). A processing approach to the working memory/long- term memory distinction: Evidence from the levels-of-processing span task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38(4), 1019. doi:10.1037/a0026976.
Schmitt, N. (1996). Uses and abuses of coefficient alpha. Psychological Assessment, 8(4), 350. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.8.4.350.
Scouller, K. (1998). The influence of assessment method on students’ learning approaches: Multiple choice question examination versus assignment essay. Higher Education, 35(4), 453–472. doi:10.1023/A:1003196224280.
Singer, M. (1994). Discourse inference processes. In M. A. Gernsbacher (Ed.), Handbook of psycholinguistics (pp. 479–515). San Diego: Academic Press.
Svensson, L. (1977). On qualitative differences in learning: Study skill and learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 47, 233–243.
Taboada, A., & Guthrie, J. (2006). Contributions of student questioning and prior knowledge to construction of knowledge form reading information text. Journal of Literacy Research, 38(1), 1–35. doi:10.1207/s15548430jlr3801_1.
Taraban, R., Rynearson, K., & Kerr, M. (2000). College students’ academic performance and self-reports of comprehension strategy use. Reading Psychology, 21(4), 283–308. doi:10.1080/027027100750061930.
Taylor, G. J. (1994). The scientific legacy of Apollo. Scientific American, 271, 40–47.
Terborgh, J. (1992). Why American songbirds are vanishing. Scientific American, 266, 98–104.
Tiwari, A., Chan, S., Wong, E., Wong, D., Chui, C., Wong, A., & Patil, N. (2006). The effect of problem-based learning on students’ approaches to learning in the context of clinical nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 26(5), 430. Retrieved from www.intl.elsevierhealth.com/journals/nedt.
van den Broek, P. (1990). The causal inference maker: Towards a process model of inference generation in text comprehension. In D. A. Balota, G. B. Flores d’Arcais, & K. Rayner (Eds.), Comprehension processes in reading (pp. 423–445). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
van den Broek, P., Lorch, R. F., Linderholm, T., & Gustafson, M. (2001). The effects of readers’ goals on inference generation and memory for texts. Memory & Cognition, 29(8), 1081–1087. doi:10.3758/BF03206376.
van Rossum, E. J., & Schenk, S. M. (1984). The relationship between learning conception, study strategy, and learning outcome. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 54(1), 73–83. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1984.tb00846.x.
Veeman, M. V. J., Prins, F. J., & Verheij, J. (2003). Learning styles: Self-reports versus thinking-aloud measures. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 357–372. doi:10.1348/000709903322275885.
Watkins, D. (1983). Depth of processing and the quality of learning outcomes. Instructional Science, 12(1), 49–58. doi:10.1007/BF00120900.
Watkins, D. (2001). Correlates of approaches to learning: A cross-cultural meta-analysis. In R. J. Sternberg & L. F. Zhang (Eds.), Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles (pp. 165–196). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Yonker, J. E. (2011). The relationship of deep and surface study approaches on factual and applied test-bank multiple-choice question performance. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 36(6), 673–686. doi:10.1080/02602938.2010.481041.