The pathobiology of premature rupture of membranes

Knox, 1950, The role of infection in premature rupture of the membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 59, 190, 10.1016/0002-9378(50)90370-X Miller, 1989, Epidemiology of spontaneous premature rupture of membranes: Factors in pre-term births, Yale J Biol Med, 62, 241 Krohn, 1995, The genital flora of women with intraamniotic infection, J Infect Dis, 171, 1475, 10.1093/infdis/171.6.1475 Gunn, 1970, Premature rupture of the fetal membranes: A review, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 106, 469, 10.1016/0002-9378(70)90378-9 Eschenbach, 1991, A randomized placebo-controlled trial of erythromycin for the treatment of Ureaplasma urealyticum to prevent premature delivery, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 164, 734, 10.1016/0002-9378(91)90506-M Carey, 1991, Antepartum cultures for Ureaplasma urealyticum are not useful in predicting pregnancy outcome, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 164, 728, 10.1016/0002-9378(91)90505-L Klebanoff, 1995, Outcome of the vaginal infections and prematurity study: Results of a clinical trial of erythromycin among pregnant women colonized with group B streptococci, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 172, 1540, 10.1016/0002-9378(95)90493-X Hillier, 1995, Association between bacterial vaginosis and preterm delivery of a low-birth-weight infant, N Engl J Med, 333, 1737, 10.1056/NEJM199512283332604 Meis, 1987, Causes of low birthweight births in public and private patients, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 156, 1165, 10.1016/0002-9378(87)90133-5 Savitz, 1991, Epidemiologic characteristics of preterm delivery: Etiologic heterogeneity, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 164, 467, 10.1016/S0002-9378(11)80001-3 Seo, 1992, Preterm birth is associated with increased risk of maternal and neonatal infection, Obstet Gynecol, 79, 75 Alger, 1986, Etiology of preterm rupture of membranes, Clin Obstet Gynecol, 29, 758, 10.1097/00003081-198612000-00005 Bernischke, 1960, Routes and types of infection in the fetus and the newborn, Am J Dis Child, 99, 714 Alger, 1988, The association of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and group B streptococci with preterm rupture of the membranes and pregnancy outcome, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 159, 397, 10.1016/S0002-9378(88)80093-0 Meyer, 1977, Maternal smoking, pregnancy complications, and perinatal mortality, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 128, 494, 10.1016/0002-9378(77)90031-X Harger, 1990, Risk factors for preterm premature, rupture of fetal membranes: A multicenter case-control study, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 163, 130, 10.1016/S0002-9378(11)90686-3 Kiilholma, 1984, The role of calcium, copper, iron and zinc in preterm delivery and premature rupture of fetal membranes, Gynecol Obstet Invest, 17, 194, 10.1159/000299148 Aplin, 1986, Importance of vitamin C in maintenance, of the normal amnion: An experimental study, Placenta, 7, 377, 10.1016/S0143-4004(86)80026-1 Naeye, 1980, Causes and consequences of premature rupture of fetal membranes, Lancet, 1, 192, 10.1016/S0140-6736(80)90674-1 Bourne, 1962 Polzin, 1991, Mechanical factors in the etiology of premature rupture of the membranes, Clin Obstet Gynecol, 34, 702, 10.1097/00003081-199112000-00006 Ibrahim, 1983, Intact fetal membranes. Morphological predisposition to rupture, Acta Obstet Cynecol Scand, 62, 481, 10.3109/00016348309154223 Azzarelli, 1987, Amniotic basement membrane: A barrier to neutrophil invasion, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 156, 1130, 10.1016/0002-9378(87)90125-6 Malak, 1993, Confocal immunofluorescence localization of collagen types I, III, IV, V and VI and their ultrastructural organization in term human fetal membranes, Placenta, 14, 385, 10.1016/S0143-4004(05)80460-6 Burgeson, 1987, The collagen family of proteins Ockleford, 1993, Micro-trabeculae, macro-plaques or mini-basement membranes in human term fetal membranes?, Phil Trans R Soc Lond B, 342, 121, 10.1098/rstb.1993.0142 Malak, 1994, Differential expression of the integrin subunits in human fetal membranes, J Reprod Fertil, 102, 269, 10.1530/jrf.0.1020269 Malak, 1994, Distribution of fibrillin-containing microfibrils and elastin in human fetal membranes: A novel molecular basis for membrane elasticity, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 171, 195, 10.1016/0002-9378(94)90469-3 Kanayama, 1985, Collagen types in normal and prematurely ruptured amniotic membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 153, 899, 10.1016/0002-9378(85)90703-3 Vadillo-Ortega, 1990, Cotiagen metabolism in premature rupture of membranes, Obstet Gynecol, 75, 84 Vadillo-Ortega, 1995, 92-kd Type IV collagenase (matrix metalloproteinase-9) activity in human amnionchorion increases with labor, Am J Pathol, 146, 148 Woessner, 1991, Matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in connective tissue remodeling, FASEB J, 5, 2145, 10.1096/fasebj.5.8.1850705 So, 1992, Tumor necrosis factor-α stimulates the biosynthesis of matrix metalloproteinases and plasminogen activator in cultured human chorionic cells, Biol Reprod, 46, 772, 10.1095/biolreprod46.5.772 Lei, 1995, 92-kDa gelatinase (matrix metalloproteinase-9) is induced in rat amnion immediately prior to parturition, Biol Reprod, 53, 339, 10.1095/biolreprod53.2.339 Malek, 1993, Structural characteristics and fibronectin synthesis by the intact term fetal membranes covering the cervix, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 100, 775 Vadillo-Ortega, 1991, Human amniotic fluid modulation of collagenase production in cultured fibroblasts, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 164, 664, 10.1016/S0002-9378(11)80043-8 Skinner, 1981, Collagen content of human amniotic membranes: Effect of gestation length and premature rupture, Obstet Gynecol, 57, 487 Manabe, 1991, Tensile strength and collagen content of amniotic membrane do not change after the second trimester or during delivery, Obstet Gynecol, 78, 24 Halaburt, 1989, The concentration of collagen and the collagenolytic activity in the amnion and the chorion, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 31, 75, 10.1016/0028-2243(89)90028-2 Evaldson, 1987, Is the collagen content reduced when the fetal membranes rupture?, Gynecol Obstet Invest, 24, 92, 10.1159/000298785 Draper, 1995, Elevated protease activities in human amnion and chorion correlate with preterm premature rupture of membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 173, 1506, 10.1016/0002-9378(95)90640-1 Danforth, 1953, Studies on fetal membranes I. Bursting tension, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 65, 480, 10.1016/0002-9378(83)90604-X Embry, 1954, On the strength of the foetal membranes, J Obstet Gynaecol Br Emp, 61, 793, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1954.tb07728.x Polishuk, 1962, The physical properties of fetal membranes, Obstet Gynecol, 20, 204 Lavery, 1982, The effect of labor on the rheologic response of chorioamniotic membranes, Obstet Gynecol, 60, 87 Helmig, 1993, Different biomechanical properties of human fetal membranes obtained before and after delivery, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 48, 183, 10.1016/0028-2243(93)90086-R Oxlund, 1990, Biomechanical analysis of human chorioamniotic membranes, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 34, 247, 10.1016/0028-2243(90)90078-F Meudt, 1967, Rupture of the fetal membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 99, 562, 10.1016/0002-9378(67)90305-5 Polishuk, 1965, Variations in foetal membrane tensile strength, J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw, 72, 422, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1965.tb01479.x Lavery, 1979, Deformation and creep in the, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 134, 366, 10.1016/S0002-9378(16)33077-0 Schober, 1994, Effect of thickness on the fracture characteristics of fetal membranes, J Mat Sci Mat Med, 5, 130, 10.1007/BF00053332 Toppozada, 1970, Role of repeated stretching in the mechanism of timely rupture of the membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 108, 243, 10.1016/0002-9378(70)90305-4 Al-Zaid, 1980, Bursting pressure and collagen content of fetal membranes and their relation to premature rupture of the membranes, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 87, 227, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1980.tb04524.x Artal, 1976, The mechanical properties of prematurely and non-prematurely ruptured membranes. Methods and preliminary results, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 125, 655=659, 10.1016/0002-9378(76)90788-2 Bou-Resli, 1991, Full-term and prematurely ruptured fetal membranes. An ultrastructural study, Cell Tissue Res, 220, 263 Malak, 1994, Structural characteristics of term human fetal membranes: A novel zone of extreme morphological alteration within the rupture site, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 101, 375, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1994.tb11908.x Paavola, 1995, Striking changes in the structure and organization of rat fetal membranes precede parturition, Biol Reprod, 53, 321, 10.1095/biolreprod53.2.321 McGregor, 1987, Bacterial protease-induced reduction of chorioamniotic membrane strength and elasticity, Obstet Gynecol, 69, 167 Schoonmaker, 1989, Bacteria and inflammatory cells reduce chorioamniotic membrane integrity and tensile strength, Obstet Gyencol, 74, 590 McGregor, 1990, Artibiotic inhibition of bacterially induced fetal membrane weakening, Obstet Gynecol, 76, 124 Gadek, 1979, Cigarette smoke induced functional antiprotease deficiency in the lower respiratory tract of humans, Science, 206, 1315, 10.1126/science.316188 Lavery, 1980, Effect of meconium on the strength of chorioamniotic membranes, Obstet Gynecol, 56, 711 Sbarra, 1987, Effect of bacterial growth on the bursting pressure of fetal membranes in vitro, Obstet Gynecol, 70, 107 Sbarra, 1985, Infection and phagocytosis as possible mechanisms of rupture in premature rupture of the membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 153, 38, 10.1016/0002-9378(85)90586-1 Petersen, 1994, Relaxin (hRLX-2)-induced weakening of human fetal membranes in vitro, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 57, 123, 10.1016/0028-2243(94)90054-X Draper, 1995, Trichomonas vaginalis weakens human amnionchorion in an in vitro model of premature membrane rupture, Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol, 2, 267, 10.1155/S1064744995000160 Lavery, 1981, Effect of prostaglandin and seminal fluid on human chorioamniotic membranes, JAMA, 245, 2425, 10.1001/jama.245.23.2425 Schober, 1995, Ionic control of the rupture of fetal membranes, J Mat Sci Mat Med, 6, 569, 10.1007/BF00121280 Ekwo, 1993, Risks for premature rupture of amniotic membranes, Int J Epidemiol, 22, 495, 10.1093/ije/22.3.495 Townsend, 1996, Spontaneous premature rupture of the membranes, Austr NZ J Obstet Gynecol, 6, 226, 10.1111/j.1479-828X.1966.tb00378.x Cederqvist, 1979, The relationship between prematurely ruptured membranes and fetal immunoglobulin production, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 134, 784, 10.1016/0002-9378(79)90948-7 Guzick, 1985, The association of chorioamnionitis and preterm delivery, Obstet Gynecol, 65, 11 Hillier, 1988, A case-control study of chorioamnionic infection and histologic chorioamnionitis in prematurity, N Engl J Med, 319, 972, 10.1056/NEJM198810133191503 Quinn, 1987, Chorioamnionitis: Its association with pregnancy outcome and microbial infection, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 156, 379, 10.1016/0002-9378(87)90288-2 Kundsen, 1984, Association of Ureaplasma urealyticum in the placenta with perinatal morbidity and mortality, N Engl J Med, 310, 941, 10.1056/NEJM198404123101502 McDonald, 1994, Changes in vaginal flora during pregnancy and association with preterm birth, J Infect Dis, 170, 724, 10.1093/infdis/170.3.724 Kass, 1981, Genital mycoplasmas as a cause of excess premature delivery, Trans Assoc Am Physic, 94, 261 Gravett, 1986, Possible role of Ureaplasma urealyticum in preterm premature rupture of the fetal membranes, Pediatr Infect Dis, 5, S253, 10.1097/00006454-198611010-00010 Harrison, 1983, Cervical Chlamydia trachomatis mycoplasmal infections in pregnancy. Epidemiology and outcomes, JAMA, 250, 1721, 10.1001/jama.250.13.1721 Sweet, 1987, Chlamydia trachomatis infection and pregnancy outcome, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 156, 824, 10.1016/0002-9378(87)90338-3 Berman, 1987, Low birth weight, prematurity and postpartum endometritis, JAMA, 257, 1189, 10.1001/jama.257.9.1189 Elliott, 1990, Maternal gonococcal infection as a preventable risk factor for low birth weight. Maternal gonococcal infection as a preventable risk factor for low birth weight, J Infect Dis, 161, 531, 10.1093/infdis/161.3.531 Edwards, 1978, Gonorrhea in pregnancy, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 132, 637, 10.1016/0002-9378(78)90856-6 Amstey, 1976, Asymptomatic gonorrhea and pregnancy, J Am Vener Dis Assoc, 3, 14 Charles, 1981, Asymptomatic gonorrhea in prenatal patients, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 57, 479 Martin, 1990, Erythromycin treatment of Chlamydia trachomatis infection during pregnancy Ryan, 1990, Chlamydia trachomatis infection in pregnancy and effect of treatment on outcome, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 162, 34, 10.1016/0002-9378(90)90815-O Cohen, 1990, Improved pregnancy outcome following successful treatment of chlamydial infection, JAMA, 263, 3160, 10.1001/jama.263.23.3160 McGregor, 1990, Cervicovaginal microflora and pregnancy outcome: Results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of erythromycin treatment, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 163, 1580, 10.1016/0002-9378(90)90632-H Grice, 1974, Vaginal infection causing spontaneous rupture of the membranes and premature delivery, Aust NZ J Obstet Gynecol, 14, 156, 10.1111/j.1479-828X.1974.tb00833.x Minkoff, 1984, Risk factors for prematurity and premature rupture of membranes: A prospective study of the vaginal flora in pregnancy, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 150, 965, 10.1016/0002-9378(84)90392-2 1990, Carriage of Trichomonas vaginalis is associated with adverse pregnancy outcome Lovchik, 1990 McGregor, 1995, Prevention of premature birth by screening and treatment for common genital tract infections: Results of a prospective controlled evaluation, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 173, 157, 10.1016/0002-9378(95)90184-1 Creatsas, 1981, Bacterial contamination of the cervix and premature rupture of membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 139, 522, 10.1016/0002-9378(81)90511-1 Varner, 1985, Ultrastructural alterations of term human amnionic epithelium following incubation with group B beta-hemolytic streptococci, Am J Reprod Immunol, 8, 27, 10.1111/j.1600-0897.1985.tb00308.x Regan, 1981, Premature rupture of membranes, preterm delivery, and group B streptococcal colonization of mothers, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 141, 184, 10.1016/S0002-9378(16)32589-3 Bobbitt, 1985, Perinatal complications in group B streptococcal carriers: A longitudinal study of prenatal patients, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 151, 711, 10.1016/0002-9378(85)90501-0 Møller, 1984, Rupture of fetal membranes and premature delivery associated with group B streptococci in urine of pregnant women, Lancet, 2, 69, 10.1016/S0140-6736(84)90242-3 Matorras, 1989, Group B Streptococcus and premature rupture of membranes and preterm delivery, Gynecol Obstet Invest, 27, 14, 10.1159/000293607 Thomsen, 1987, Antibiotic elimination of group-B streptococci in urine in prevention of preterm labour, Lancet, 1, 591, 10.1016/S0140-6736(87)90234-0 Hastings, 1986, Group B streptococcal colonization and the outcome of pregnancy, J Infect, 12, 23, 10.1016/S0163-4453(86)94775-4 Regan, 1996, Colonization with group B streptococci in pregnancy and adverse outcome, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 174, 1354, 10.1016/S0002-9378(96)70684-1 McKenzie, 1994, Risk of preterm delivery in pregnant women with group B streptococcal urinary infections or urinary antibodies to group B streptococcal and E. coli antigens, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 101, 107, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1994.tb13074.x Gravett, 1986, Independent associations of bacterial vaginosis and Chlamydia trachomatis infection with adverse pregnancy outcome, JAMA, 256, 1899, 10.1001/jama.256.14.1899 Gravett, 1986, Preterm labor associated with subclinical amniotic fluid infection and with bacterial vaginosis, Obstet Gynecol, 67, 229, 10.1097/00006250-198602000-00013 Martius, 1988, Relationships of vaginal Lactobacillus species, cervical Chlamydia trachomatis, and bacterial vaginosis to preterm birth, Obstet Gynecol, 71, 89 McGregor, 1990, Antenatal microbiologic and maternal risk factors associated with prematurity, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 163, 1465, 10.1016/0002-9378(90)90607-9 McDonald, 1991, Vaginal infection and preterm labour, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 98, 427, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1991.tb10335.x McDonald, 1992, Prenatal microbiological risk factors associated with preterm birth, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 99, 190, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1992.tb14497.x Kurki, 1992, Bacterial vaginosis in early pregnancy and pregnancy outcome, Obstet Gynecol, 80, 173 Hay, 1994, Abnormal bacterial colonization of the genital tract and subsequent preterm delivery and late miscarriage, Br Med J, 308, 295, 10.1136/bmj.308.6924.295 Joesoef, 1993, Bacterial vaginosis and prematurity in Indonesia: Association in early and late pregnancy, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 169, 175, 10.1016/0002-9378(93)90157-E McGregor, 1994, Bacterial vaginosis is associated with prematurity and vaginal fluid sialidase: Results of a controlled trial of topical clindamycin cream, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 170, 1048, 10.1016/S0002-9378(94)70098-2 Spiegel, 1980, Anaerobic bacteria in nonspecific vaginitis, N Engl J Med, 303, 601, 10.1056/NEJM198009113031102 Morales, 1994, Effects of metronidazole in patients with preterm birth in preceding pregnancy and bacterial vaginosis: A placebo-controlled, double-blind study, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 171, 345, 10.1016/S0002-9378(94)70033-8 Glasson, 1988, Immunoglobulin proteases in bacteria associated with bacterial vaginosis, Austr J Med Lab Sci, 9, 63 Blake, 1979, Studies on gonococcus infection. XVII. IgA1-Cleaving protease in vaginal washings from women with gonorrhea, J Infect Dis, 139, 89, 10.1093/infdis/139.1.89 Kapatais-Zoumbos, 1985, Survey of immunoglobulin A protease activity among selected species of Ureaplasma and Mycoplasma: Specificity for host immunoglobulin A, Infect Immunol, 47, 704, 10.1128/IAI.47.3.704-709.1985 McGregor, 1992, Association of cervico/vaginal infections with increased vaginal fluid phospholipase A2 activity, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 167, 1588, 10.1016/0002-9378(92)91746-W McGregor, 1991, Phospholipase C activity in microorganisms associated with reproductive tract infection, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 164, 682, 10.1016/S0002-9378(11)80046-3 McGregor, 1986, Protease production by microorganisms associated with reproductive tract infection, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 154, 109, 10.1016/0002-9378(86)90404-7 Platz-Christensen, 1992, Increased prostaglandin concentrations in the cervical mucus of pregnant women with bacterial vaginosis, Prostaglandins, 43, 133, 10.1016/0090-6980(92)90082-5 Platz-Christensen, 1993, Endotoxin and interleukin-1-α in the cervical mucus and vaginal fluid of pregnant women with bacterial vaginosis, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 169, 1161, 10.1016/0002-9378(93)90274-M Dudley, 1994, Infection, inflammation, and contractions: The role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of preterm labor, Semin Reprod Endocrinol, 12, 263, 10.1055/s-2007-1016407 Helmig, 1995, Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor in the cervical mucus and in the fetal membranes, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 59, 95, 10.1016/0028-2243(94)02023-8 Alderete, 1991, Antibody in sera of patients infected with Trichomonas vaginalis is to trichomonad proteinases, Genitourinary Med, 67, 331 McGregor, 1986, Protease production by microorganisms associated with reproductive tract infection, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 154, 109, 10.1016/0002-9378(86)90404-7 Shiono, 1986, Smoking and drinking during pregnancy. Their effects of preterm birth, JAMA, 255, 82, 10.1001/jama.255.1.82 Hadley, 1990, Risk factors for preterm premature rupture of the fetal membranes, Am J Perinatol, 7, 374, 10.1055/s-2007-999527 Williams, 1992, Cigarettes, coffee, and preterm premature rupture of the membranes, Am J Epidemiol, 135, 895, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116385 Gosselink, 1992, Dietary habits, prepregnancy weight, and weight gain during pregnancy. Risk of preterm rupture of amniotic sac membranes, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 71, 425, 10.3109/00016349209021091 McCann, 1992, Nicotine and cotinine in the cervical mucus of smokers, passive smokers, and nonsmokers, Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev, 1, 125 Hellberg, 1988, Smoking and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: Nicotine and cotinine in serum and cervical mucus in smokers and nonsmokers, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 158, 910, 10.1016/0002-9378(88)90093-2 Barton, 1988, Effect of cigarette smoking on cervical epithelial immunity: A mechanism for neoplastic change?, Lancet, ii, 652, 10.1016/S0140-6736(88)90469-2 Burns, 1994, Cigarette smoking, premature rupture of membranes, and vertical transmission of HIV-1 among women with low CD4+ levels, J Acquir Immunol Def Syndrome, 7, 718 Green, 1967, The depressant effect of cigarette smoke on the in vitro antibacterial activity of alveolar macrophages, N Engl J Med, 276, 421, 10.1056/NEJM196702232760801 Narahara, 1993, Smoking and preterm labor: Effect of a cigarette smoke extract on the secretion of platelet-activating factor-acetylhydrolase by human decidual macrophages, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 169, 1321, 10.1016/0002-9378(93)90300-8 Basu, 1990, Smoking and the antioxidant ascorbic acid. Plasma, leukocyte, and cervicovaginal cell concentrations in normal healthy women, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 163, 1948, 10.1016/0002-9378(90)90779-7 Farr, 1983, Human serum acid-labile factor in an acyl-hydrolase that inactivates platelet-activating factor, 42, 3120 Billah, 1985, Platelet-activation factor metabolism in human amnion and the responses of this tissue to extracellular platelet-activation factor, Prostaglandins, 30, 841, 10.1016/0090-6980(85)90012-7 Morris, 1992, Effects of platelet-activating factor on prostaglandin E2 production by intact fetal membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 166, 1228, 10.1016/S0002-9378(11)90611-5 Tetta, 1986, Platelet-activating factor contracts human myometrium in vitro, 183, 376 Zhu, 1992, The presence of platelet activating factor binding sites in human myometrium and their role in uterine contraction, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 166, 1222, 10.1016/S0002-9378(11)90610-3 Sastry, 1989, Tobacco smoking by pregnant women. Disturbances in metabolism of branched chain amino acids and fetal growth, Ann NY Acad Sci, 678, 361, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb26147.x Sastry, 1991, Placental toxicology: Tobacco smoke, abused drugs, multiple chemical interactions and placental function, Reprod Fertil Dev, 3, 355, 10.1071/RD9910355 Barrett, 1991, Ascorbic acid concentration in amniotic fluid in late pregnancy, Biol Neonate, 60, 333, 10.1159/000243426 Schectman, 1989, The influence of smoking on vitamin C status in adults, Am J Public Health, 79, 158, 10.2105/AJPH.79.2.158 Basu, 1989, Plasma reduced and total ascorbic acid in healthy women: Effects of smoking and oral contraception, Contraception, 39, 85, 10.1016/0010-7824(89)90017-6 Phillips, 1982, Ascorbic acid and transforming growth factor-β-1 increase collagen biosynthesis via different mechanisms: Coordinate regulation of pro-alpha-1 (I) and pro-alpha 1 (III) collagens, Arch Biochem Biophys, 295, 397, 10.1016/0003-9861(92)90533-3 Naeye, 1979, Coitus and associated amniotic-fluid infections, N Engl J Med, 301, 1198, 10.1056/NEJM197911293012202 Naeye, 1982, Coitus and chorioamnionitis: A prospective study, Early Hum Dev, 6, 91, 10.1016/0378-3782(82)90062-7 Naeye, 1982, Factors that predispose to premature rupture of the fetal membranes, Obstet Gynecol, 60, 93 Morris, 1975, The frequency of sexual intercourse during pregnancy, Arch Sex Behav, 4, 501, 10.1007/BF01542128 Klebanoff, 1984, Coitus during pregnancy: Is is safe?, Lancet, ii, 914, 10.1016/S0140-6736(84)90665-2 Mills, 1981, Should coitus late in pregnancy be discouraged?, Lancet, ii, 136, 10.1016/S0140-6736(81)90311-1 Wagner, 1976, Prematurity and orgasmic coitus during pregnancy: Data on a small sample, Fertil Steril, 27, 911, 10.1016/S0015-0282(16)42011-X Goodlin, 1971, Orgasm during late pregnancy: Possible deleterious effects, Obstet Gynecol, 38, 916 Rayburn, 1980, Coital activity and premature delivery, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 137, 972, 10.1016/S0002-9378(16)32841-1 Perkins, 1982, Sexuality in pregnancy: What determines behavior?, Obstet Gynecol, 59, 189 Pugh, 1953, Coitus in late pregnancy, Obstet Gynecol, 2, 636 Ekwo, 1993, Coitus late in pregnancy: Risk of preterm rupture of amniotic sac membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 168, 22, 10.1016/S0002-9378(12)90879-0 Read, 1993, Sexual intercourse during pregnancy and preterm delivery: Effects of vaginal microorganisms, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 168, 514, 10.1016/0002-9378(93)90484-Z Kurki, 1993, Coitus during pregnancy is not related to bacterial vaginosis or preterm birth, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 169, 1130, 10.1016/0002-9378(93)90268-N Klebanoff, 1989, Facts and artifacts about anemia and preterm birth, JAMA, 262, 511, 10.1001/jama.262.4.511 Brandes, 1980, Zinc concentration in gravida's serum and amniotic fluid during pregnancy, Biol Neonate, 38, 66, 10.1159/000241337 Sikorski, 1990, Zinc status in women with premature rupture of membranes at term, Obstet Gynecol, 76, 675 Schliever, 1976, Bacterial growth inhibition by amniotic fluid. VI. Evidence for a zincpeptide antibacterial system, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 125, 906, 10.1016/0002-9378(76)90486-5 Villa Elizaga, 1985, Zinc, pregnancy and parturition, Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl, 319, 150, 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1985.tb10125.x Kynast, 1980, The relevance of zinc in pregnancy, J Perinat Med, 8, 171 Abdel-Mageed, 1994, Perinatal hypocuprosis affects synthesis and composition of neonatal lung collagen, elastin and surfactant, Am J Physiol, 267, L679 Vir, 1981, Serum and hair concentrations of copper during pregnancy, Am J Clin Nutr, 34, 2382, 10.1093/ajcn/34.11.2382 Artal, 1979, Fetal and maternal copper levels in patients at term with and without premature rupture of membranes, Obstet Gynecol, 53, 608 Anderson, 1979, Effects of ascorbate on leukocytes. II. Effects of ascorbic acid and calcium and sodium ascorbate on neutrophil phagocytosis and post-phagocytic metabolic activity, S Afr Med J, 56, 401 Chatterjee, 1977, Effect of L-lysine administration on certain aspects of ascorbic acid metabolism in weanling rats, Experentia, 33, 291, 10.1007/BF02002785 Wideman, 1964, Ascorbic acid deficiency and premature rupture of fetal membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 88, 592, 10.1016/0002-9378(64)90885-3 Casanueva, 1991, Incidence of premature rupture of membranes in pregnant women with low leukocyte levels of vitamin C, Eur J Clin Nutr, 45, 401 Casanueva, 1993, Premature rupture of amniotic membranes as functional assessment of vitamin C status during pregnancy, Ann NY Acad Sci, 678, 369, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb26150.x Westney, 1994, Nutrition, genital tract infection, hematologic values and premature rupture of membranes among African American women, J Nutr, 124, 987S Ananth, 1994, Vaginal bleeding and adverse reproductive outcomes: A meta-analysis, Paediatr Perinatol Epidemiol, 8, 62, 10.1111/j.1365-3016.1994.tb00436.x Berkowitz, 1983, Early gestational bleeding and pregnancy outcome: A multivariable analysis, Int J Epidemol, 12, 165, 10.1093/ije/12.2.165 Darby, 1989, Placental abruption in the preterm gestation: An association with chorioamnionitis, Obstet Gynecol, 74, 88 Salafia, 1995, Histologic evidence of old intrauterine bleeding is not frequent in prematurity, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 173, 1065, 10.1016/0002-9378(95)91327-0 Spinillo, 1994, Epidemiological correlates of preterm premature rupture of membranes, Int J Gynecol Obstet, 47, 7, 10.1016/0020-7292(94)90454-5 Heffner, 1993, Clinical and environmental predictors of preterm labor, Obstet Gynecol, 81, 750 Stergachis, 1991, Maternal cigarette smoking and the risk of tubal pregnancy, Am J Epidemiol, 133, 332, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115885 Coste, 1991, Increased risk of ectopic pregnancy with maternal cigarette smoking, Am J Public Health, 81, 199, 10.2105/AJPH.81.2.199 Evaldson, 1980, Premature rupture of the membranes, Acta Obstet Gynecol, 59, 385, 10.3109/00016348009155416 Svare, 1992, The relationship between prior cervical conization, cervical microbial colonization and preterm premature rupture of the membranes, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 47, 41, 10.1016/0028-2243(92)90212-H Leiman, 1980, Pregnancy following conization of the cervix: Complications related to cone size, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 136, 14, 10.1016/0002-9378(80)90556-6 Dor, 1982, Elective cervical suture of twin pregnancies diagnosed ultrasonically in the first trimester following induced ovulation, Gynecol Obstet Invest, 13, 55, 10.1159/000299484 Rush, 1984, A randomized controlled trial of cervical cerclage in women at high risk of spontaneous preterm delivery, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 91, 724, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1984.tb04840.x Parisi, 1988, Cervical incompetence and preterm labor, Clin Obstet Gynecol, 31, 585, 10.1097/00003081-198809000-00007 MRC/RCOG Working Party on Cervical Cerclage, 1993, Final report of the Medical Research Council/Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists multicentre randomized trial of cervical cerclage, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 100, 516, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1993.tb15300.x Goodlin, 1987, Surgical treatment of patients with hour glass shaped or ruptured membranes prior to the twenty-fifth week of gestation, Surg Gynecol Obstet, 165, 410 Wong, 1993, Emergency cervical cerclage: A retrospective review of 51 cases, Am J Perinatol, 10, 341, 10.1055/s-2007-994757 Aarnoudse, 1979, Complications of cerclage, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 58, 255, 10.3109/00016347909154044 Novy, 1987, Plasma concentrations of prostaglandin F2α and prostaglandin E2 metabolites after transabdominal and transvaginal cervical cerclage, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 156, 1543, 10.1016/0002-9378(87)90029-9 Papiernik, 1986, Precocious cervical ripening and preterm labor, Obstet Gynecol, 67, 238, 10.1097/00006250-198602000-00014 Creasy, 1990, Prevention of preterm birth: Clinical opinion, Obstet Gynecol, 76, 2S Aubry, 1973, High-risk pregnancy identification, Clin Obstet Gynecol, 16, 16, 10.1097/00003081-197303000-00002 Lenihan, 1984, Relationship of antepartum pelvic examinations to premature rupture of the membranes, Obstet Gynecol, 63, 33 McDuffie, 1992, Effect of routine weekly cervical examinations at term on premature rupture of the membranes: A randomized controlled trial, Obstet Gynecol, 79, 219 1993, Multicenter randomized, controlled trial of a preterm birth prevention program, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 169, 352, 10.1016/0002-9378(93)90087-Y Bivens, 1993, Risks of antepartum cervical examination in multifetal gestations, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 169, 22, 10.1016/0002-9378(93)90125-3 Buekens, 1994, The European Community Collaborative Study Group on Prenatal Screening: Randomized controlled trial of routine cervical examinations in pregnancy, Lancet, 344, 841, 10.1016/S0140-6736(94)92825-8 Iams, 1990, Symptoms that precede preterm labor and preterm premature rupture of the membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 162, 486, 10.1016/0002-9378(90)90417-6 Mercer, 1993, Clinical characreristics and outcome of twin gestation complicated by preterm premature rupture of the membranes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 168, 1467, 10.1016/S0002-9378(11)90783-2 MacLennan, 1989, Multiple Gestation-Clinical characteristics and management, chapter 33, 582 MacGillivray, 1982, Preterm deliveries in twin pregnancies in Aberdeen, Acta Genet Med, 31, 207 McGregor, 1986, Adjunctive erythromycin treatment for idiopathic preterm labor: Results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 154, 98, 10.1016/0002-9378(86)90401-1 McGregor, 1991, Adjunctive clindamycin therapy for preterm labor: Results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 165, 867, 10.1016/0002-9378(91)90430-Y Guinn, 1995, Risk factors for the development of preterm premature rupture of the membranes after arrest of preterm labor, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 173, 1310, 10.1016/0002-9378(95)91377-7 Brody, 1953, Marginal insertion of the cord and premature labor, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 65, 1305, 10.1016/0002-9378(53)90371-8 Ekwo, 1992, Unfavorable outcome in penultimate pregnancy and premature rupture of membranes in successive pregnancy, Obstet Gynecol, 80, 166 Asrat, 1991, Rate of recurrence of preterm premature rupture of membranes in consecutive pregnancies, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 165, 1111, 10.1016/0002-9378(91)90481-6 Ekwo, 1993, Previous pregnancy outcomes and subsequent risk of preterm rupture of amniotic sac membranes, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 100, 536, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1993.tb15304.x Steinman, 1978, Spontaneous premature rupture of membranes. Correlation with ambient atmospheric pressure, NY State J Med, 78, 900 Polansky, 1985, Premature rupture of the membranes and barometric pressure changes, J Reprod Med, 30, 189 Milingos, 1978, Influence of meteorological factors on premature rupture of fetal membranes, Lancet, ii, 435, 10.1016/S0140-6736(78)91914-1 Trap, 1989, Premature rupture of the fetal membranes, thé phases of the moon and barometer readings, Gynecol Obstet Invest, 28, 14, 10.1159/000293490 Marks, 1983, Effects of barometric pressure on premature rupture of the membranes, J Reprod Med, 28, 335