The emergence of perovskite solar cells

Turner, G. Global Renewable Energy Market Outlook 2013. Bloomberg New Energy Finance https://www.bnef.com/insightdownload/7526/pdf (11 April 2014).

Park, N.-G. Organometal perovskite light absorbers toward a 20% efficiency low-cost solid-state mesoscopic solar cell. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 4, 2423–2429 (2013).

Snaith, H. J. Perovskites: the emergence of a new era for low-cost, high-efficiency solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 4, 3623–3630 (2013).

Kim, H.-S., Im, S. H. & Park, N.-G. Organolead halide perovskite: new horizons in solar cell research. J. Phys. Chem. C 118, 5615–5625 (2014).

Hodes, G. & Cahen, D. Photovoltaics: perovskite cells roll forward. Nature Photon. 8, 87–88 (2014).

Service, R. F. Perovskite solar cells keep on surging. Science 344, 458 (2014).

Li, C. et al. Formability of ABX3 (X = F, Cl, Br, I) halide perovskites. Acta Crystallogr. B 64, 702–707 (2008).

McKinnon, N. K., Reeves, D. C. & Akabas, M. H. 5-HT3 receptor ion size selectivity is a property of the transmembrane channel, not the cytoplasmic vestibule portals. J. Gen. Physiol. 138, 453–466 (2011).

Cohen, B. N., Labarca, C., Davidson, N. & Lester, H. A. Mutations in M2 alter the selectivity of the mouse nicotinic acetylcholine receptor for organic and alkali metal cations. J. Gen. Physiol. 100, 373–400 (1992).

Im, J.-H., Chung, J., Kim, S.-J. & Park, N.-G. Synthesis, structure, and photovoltaic property of a nanocrystalline 2H perovskite-type novel sensitizer (CH3CH2NH3)Pbl3 . Nanoscale Res. Lett. 7, 353 (2012).

Koh, T. M. et al. Formamidinium-containing metal-halide: an alternative material for near-IR absorption perovskite solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. C http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp411112k (13 December 2013).

Eperon, G. E. et al. Formamidinium lead trihalide: a broadly tunable perovskite for efficient planar heterojunction solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 7, 982–988 (2014).

Pang, S. et al. NH2CH=NH2Pbl3: An alternative organolead iodide perovskite sensitizer for mesoscopic solar cells. Chem. Mater. 26, 1485–1491 (2014).

Umari, P., Mosconi, E. & De Angelis, F. Relativistic GW calculations on CH3NH3PbI3 and CH3NH3SnI3 perovskites for solar cell applications. Sci. Rep. 4, 4467 (2014).

Topsöe, H. Krystallographisch-chemische untersuchungen homologer verbindungen. Zeitschrift für Kristallographie 8, 246–296 (1884).

Mitzi, D. B., Wang, S., Feild, C. A., Chess, C. A. & Guloy, A. M. Conducting layered organic–inorganic halides containing <110>-oriented perovskite sheets. Science 267, 1473–1476 (1995).

Mitzi, D. B., Chondroudis, K. & Kagan, C. R. Organic-inorganic electronics. IBM J. Res. Dev. 45, 29–45 (2001).

Kojima, A., Teshima, K., Miyasaka, T. & Shirai, Y. Novel photoelectrochemical cell with mesoscopic electrodes sensitized by lead-halide compounds (2). in Proc. 210th ECS Meeting (ECS, 2006).

Kojima, A., Teshima, K., Shirai, Y. & Miyasaka, T. Organometal halide perovskites as visible-light sensitizers for photovoltaic cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, 6050–6051 (2009).

Kojima, A., Teshima, K., Shirai, Y. & Miyasaka, T. Novel photoelectrochemical cell with mesoscopic electrodes sensitized by lead-halide compounds (11). in Proc. 214th ECS Meeting (ECS, 2014).

Im, J.-H., Lee, C.-R., Lee, J.-W., Park, S.-W. & Park, N.-G. 6.5% efficient perovskite quantum-dot-sensitized solar cell. Nanoscale 3, 4088–4093 (2011).

Kim, H.-S. et al. Lead iodide perovskite sensitized all-solid-state submicron thin film mesoscopic solar cell with efficiency exceeding 9%. Sci. Rep. 2, 591 (2012).

Lee, M. M., Teuscher, J., Miyasaka, T., Murakami, T. N. & Snaith, H. J. Efficient hybrid solar cells based on meso-superstructured organometal halide perovskites. Science 338, 643–647 (2012).

Salbeck, J., Yu, N., Bauer, J., Weissörtel, F. & Bestgen, H. Low molecular organic glasses for blue electroluminescence. Synthetic Metals 91, 209–215 (1997).

Bach, U. et al. Solid-state dye-sensitized mesoporous TiO2 solar cells with high photon-to-electron conversion efficiencies. Nature 395, 583–585 (1998).

Stranks, S. D. et al. Electron–hole diffusion lengths exceeding 1 micrometer in an organometal trihalide perovskite absorber. Science 342, 341–344 (2013).

Heo, J. H. et al. Efficient inorganic–organic hybrid heterojunction solar cells containing perovskite compound and polymeric hole conductors. Nature Photon. 7, 486–491 (2013).

Noh, J. H, Im, S. H., Heo, J. H., Mandal, T. N. & Seok, S. I. Chemical management for colorful, efficient, and stable inorganic-organic hybrid nanostructured solar cells. Nano Lett. 13, 1764–1769 (2013).

Stoumpos, C. C., Malliakas, C. D. & Kanatzidis, M. G. Semiconducting tin and lead iodide perovskites with organic cations: phase transitions, high mobilities, and near-infrared photoluminescent properties. Inorg. Chem. 52, 9019–9038 (2013).

Burschka, J. et al. Sequential deposition as a route to high-performance perovskite-sensitized solar cells. Nature 499, 316–319 (2013).

Green, M. A., Emery, K., Hishikawa, Y., Warta, W. & Dunlop, E. D. Solar cell efficiency tables (version 43). Prog. Photovolt. 22, 1–9 (2014).

Liu, M., Johnston, M. B. & Snaith, H. J. Efficient planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells by vapour deposition. Nature 501, 395–398 (2013).

Burschka, J. High performance solid-state mesoscopic solar cells. PhD thesis, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne 107 (2013).

Chen, Q. et al. Planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells via vapor-assisted solution process. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136, 622–625 (2014).

Liu, D. & Kelly, T. L. Perovskite solar cells with a planar heterojunction structure prepared using room-temperature solution processing techniques. Nature Photon. 8, 133–138 (2014).

Christians, J. A., Fung, R. C. M. & Kamat, P. V. An inorganic hole conductor for organo-lead halide perovskite solar cells. Improved hole conductivity with copper iodide. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136, 758–764 (2014).

Ito, S. Pb perovskite solar cells using inorganic hole conductor of CuSCN. Paper Y-RS-14 in 2013 MRS Fall Meeting & Exhibit (MRS, 2013).

Docampo, P., Ball, J. M., Darwich, M., Eperon, G. E. & Snaith, H. J. Efficient organometal trihalide perovskite planar-heterojunction solar cells on flexible polymer substrates. Nature Commun. 4, 2761 (2013).

Malinkiewicz, O. et al. Perovskite solar cells employing organic charge-transport layers. Nature Photon. 8, 128–132 (2014).

Sun, S. et al. The origin of high efficiency in low-temperature solution-processable bilayer organometal halide hybrid solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 7, 399–407 (2014).

Wang, J. T.-W. et al. Low-temperature processed electron collection layers of graphene/TiO2 nanocomposites in thin film perovskite solar cells. Nano Lett. 14, 724–730 (2014).

Wojciechowski, K., Saliba, M., Leijtens, T., Abate, A. & Snaith, H. J. Sub-150 °C processed meso-superstructured perovskite solar cells with enhanced efficiency. Energy Environ. Sci. 7, 1142–1147 (2014).

Eperon, G. E., Burlakov, V. M., Goriely, A. & Snaith, H. J. Neutral color semitransparent microstructured perovskite solar cells. ACS Nano 8, 591–598 (2014).

Wang, J. et al. Performance improvement of amorphous silicon see-through solar modules with high transparency by the multi-line ns-laser scribing technique. Opt. Las. Eng. 51, 1206–1212 (2013).

Even, J., Pedesseau, L., Jancu, J.-M. & Katan, C. Importance of spin-orbit coupling in hybrid organic/inorganic perovskites for photovoltaic applications. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 4, 2999–3005 (2013).

Sell, D. D. & Lawaetz, P. New analysis of direct exciton transitions: application to GaP. Phys. Rev. Lett. 26, 311–314 (1971).

Even, J., Pedesseau, L., Dupertuis, M.-A., Jancu, J.-M. & Katan, C. Electronic model for self-assembled hybrid organic/perovskite semiconductors: reverse band edge electronic states ordering and spin-orbit coupling. Phys. Rev. B 86, 205301 (2012).

Ishihara, T. Optical properties of PbI-based perovskite structures. J. Luminescence 60, 269–274 (1994).

D'Innocenzo, V. et al. Excitons versus free charges in organo-lead tri-halide perovskites. Nature Commun. 5, 3586 10.1038/ncomms4586(2014).

Tauc, J. Optical properties and electronic structure of amorphous Ge and Si. Mater. Res. Bull. 3, 37–46 (1968).

Elliott, R. J. Intensity of optical absorption by excitons. Phys. Rev. 108, 1384–1389 (1957).

Tanaka, K. et al. Comparative study on the excitons in lead-halide-based perovskite-type crystals CH3NH3PbBr3 CH3NH3PbI3 . Solid State Commun. 127, 619–623 (2003).

Combescot, M. Thermodynamics of an electron-hole system in semiconductors. Phys. Status Solidi B 86, 349–358 (1978).

Corkish, R., Chan, D. S.-P. & Green, M. A. Excitons in silicon diodes and solar cells: a three-particle theory. J. Appl. Phys. 79, 195–203 (1996).

Geelhaar, F. Coulomb Correlation Effects in Silicon Devices (Series in Microelectronics 147 Hartung-Gorre, 2004).

Green, M. A. Many-body theory applied to solar cells: excitonic and related carrier correlation effects in Proc. 26th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (1997).

Green, M. A. Radiative efficiency of state-of-the-art photovoltaic cells. Prog. Photovolt. 20, 472–476 (2012).

Ungár, T. The meaning of size obtained from broadened X-ray diffraction peaks. Adv. Eng. Mater. 5, 323–329 (2003).

Edalati, K. & Horita, Z. Significance of homologous temperature in softening behavior and grain size of pure metals processed by high-pressure torsion. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 528, 7514–7523 (2011).

Edri, E. et al. Why lead methylammonium tri-iodide perovskite-based solar cells require a mesoporous electron transporting scaffold (but not necessarily a hole conductor). Nano Lett. 14, 1000–1004 (2014).

Liang, K., Mitzi D. B. & Prikas, M. T. Synthesis and characterization of organic–inorganic perovskite thin films prepared using a versatile two-step dipping technique. Chem. Mater. 10, 403–411 (1998).

Kim, J., Lee, S.-H., Lee, J. H. & Hong, K.-H. The role of intrinsic defects in methylammonium lead iodide perovskite. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 5, 1312–1317 (2014).

Yin, W.-J., Shi, T. & Yan, Y. Unusual defect physics in CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite solar cell absorber. Appl. Phys. Lett. 104, 063903 (2014).

Onoda-Yamamuro, N., Matsuo, T. & Suga, H. Dielectric study of CH3NH3PbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I). J. Phys. Chem. Solids 53, 935–939 (1992).

Poglitsch, A. & Weber, D. Dynamic disorder in methylammoniumtrihalogenoplumbates (II) observed by millimeter-wave spectroscopy. J. Chem. Phys. 87, 6373 (1987).

Hirasawa, M., Ishihara, T., Goto, T., Uchida, K. & Miura, N. Magnetoabsorption of the lowest exciton in perovskite-type compound (CH3NH3)PbI3 . Physica B 201, 427–430 (1994).

Yuan, Y., Xiao, Z., Yang, B. & Huang, J. Arising applications of ferroelectric materials in photovoltaic devices. J. Mater. Chem. A 2, 6027–6041 (2014).

Frost, J. M. et al. Atomistic origins of high-performance in hybrid halide perovskite solar cells. Nano Lett. 14, 2584–2590 (2014).

Snaith, H. J. et al. Anomalous hysteresis in perovskite solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 5, 1511–1515 (2014).

Hoke, E. T., Unger, E. L., Vandewal, K. & McGehee, M. D. Charge recombination and transport in hybrid perovskite solar cells: why do perovskite solar cells have large Voc? in Proc. MRS Fall Meeting and Exhibit (2013).

Marchioro, A. et al. Unravelling the mechanism of photoinduced charge transfer processes in lead iodide perovskite solar cells. Nature Photon. 8, 250–255 (2014).

Edri, E. et al. Elucidating the charge carrier separation mechanism in CH3NH3PbI3-xClx perovskite solar cells. Nature Commun. 5, 3461 (2014).

Stranks, S. D. et al. Electron–hole diffusion lengths exceeding 1 micrometer in an organometal trihalide perovskite absorber. Science 342, 341–344 (2013).

Xing, G. et al. Long-range balanced electron- and hole-transport lengths in organic–inorganic CH3NH3Pbl3 . Science 342, 344–347 (2013).

Anderson, R. L. Germanium-gallium arsenide heterojunction. IBM J. Res. Dev. 4, 283–287 (1960).

Peressi, M., Baldereschi, A. & Baroni, S. in Characterization of Semiconductor Heterostructures and Nanostructures 2nd Edn (eds Agostini G. & Lamberti, C) Ch. 2 (Elsevier, 2008).

Kavan, L. & Grätzel, M. Highly efficient semiconducting TiO2 photoelectrodes prepared by aerosol pyrolysis. Electrochimica Acta 40, 643–652 (1995).

Green, M. A. The depletion layer collection efficiency for p-n junction, Schottky diode, and surface insulator solar cells. J. Appl. Phys. 47, 547–554 (1976).

Lindblad, R. et al. Electronic structure of TiO2/CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite solar cell interfaces. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 5, 648–653 (2014).

Schulz, P. et al. Interface energetics in organo-metal halide perovskite-based photovoltaic cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 7, 1377–1381 (2014).

First Solar Sets New World Record for CdTe Solar Cell Efficiency. http://investor.firstsolar.com/releasedetail.cfm?releaseid=743398 (26 February 2013).

Widmar, M. First Solar Q4′13 Earnings Call. http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/fslr/1347979521x0x728649/bddfd430-a025-43e4-8b91-c1915066b274/q413_earnings_call_presentation_final1.pdf (25 February 2014).

De Jong, T. First Solar Manufacturing Update. http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/fslr/3084163747x0x652323/53f7a04f-fcf5-4729-8bb2-0abf6033c046/4.%20fsanalystday_manufacturing.pdf (11 April 2014).

Garabedian, R. Technology Update. 2013 Analyst Meeting, First Solar. http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/FSLR/3084163747x0x652328/d0af6554-e193-47e4-9dd0-59b02968272b/fsanalystday_technologyupdate.pdf (11 April 2014).

Rinaldi, N. Solar PV Module Costs to Fall to 36 Cents per Watt by 2017 http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/solar-pv-module-costs-to-fall-to-36-cents-per-watt (18 June 2013).

Directive 2011/65/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2011 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (recast). http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=celex:32011L0065 (8 June 2011).

Coyle, D. J. Life prediction for CIGS solar modules part 1: modeling moisture ingress and degradation. Prog. Photovolt. 21, 156–172 (2013).

Coyle, D. J. et al. Life prediction for CIGS solar modules part 2: degradation kinetics, accelerated testing, and encapsulant effects. Prog. Photovolt. 21, 173–186 (2013).

Kempe, M. D., Dameron, A. A. & Reese, M. O. Evaluation of moisture ingress from the perimeter of photovoltaic modules. Prog. Photovolt. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pip.2374 (2013).

Kempe, M. D., Panchagade, D., Reese, M. O. & Dameron, A. A. Modeling moisture ingress through polyisobutylene-based edge-seals. Prog. Photovolt. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pip.2465 (2014).

Niu, G. et al. Study on the stability of CH3NH3PbI3 films and the effect of post-modification by aluminum oxide in all-solid-state hybrid solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 2, 705–710 (2014).

Carcia, P. F., McLean, R. S. & Hegedus, S. ALD Moisture barrier for Cu(InGa)Se2 solar cells. in Proc. 218th ECS Meeting (ECS, 2010).

Leijtens, T. et al. Overcoming ultraviolet light instability of sensitized TiO2 with meso-superstructured organometal tri-halide perovskite solar cells. Nature Commun. 4, 2885 (2013).

Werner, J. H., Zapf-Gottwick, R., Koch, M. & Fischer, K. Toxic substances in photovoltaic modules. in Proc. 21st Int. Photovoltaic Sci. Eng. Conf. (2011).

Noel, N. K. et al. Lead-free organic-inorganic tin halide perovskites for photovoltaic applications. Energy Environ. Sci. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c4ee01076K (2014).

Wehrenfennig, C., Liu, M., Snaith, H. J., Johnston, M. B. & Herz, L. M. Homogeneous emission line broadening in the organo lead halide perovskite CH3NH3PbI3-xClx . J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 5, 1300–1306 (2014).

Rühle, S. & Dittrich, T. Investigation of the electric field in TiO2/FTO junctions used in dye-sensitized solar cells by photocurrent transients. J. Phys. Chem. B 109, 9522–9526 (2005).

Snaith, H. J. & Grätzel, M. The role of a “Schottky barrier” at an electron-collection electrode in solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells. Adv. Mater. 18, 1910–1914 (2006).

Kron, G., Rau, U. & Werner, J. H. Influence of the built-in voltage on the fill factor of dye-sensitized solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. B 107, 13258–13261 (2003).