The effects of short-term L2 training on components of executive control in Indian bilinguals

Abutalebi J, Della Rosa PA, Ding G, Weekes B, Costa A, Green DW (2013) Language proficiency modulates the engagement of cognitive control areas in multilinguals. Cortex 49:905–911 Anton E, Garcia YF, Carreiras M, Dunabeitia JA (2016) Does bilingualism shape inhibitory control in the elderly? J Mem Lang 90:147–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2016.04.007 Anton E, Carreiras M, Dunabeitia JA (2019) The impact of bilingualism on executive functions and working memory in young adults. PLoS ONE 14:e0206770. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206770 Atkins PWB, Baddeley AD (1998) Working memory and distributed vocabulary learning. Appl Psycholinguist 19:537–552 Baddeley A (2003) Working memory and language: an overview. J Commun Disord 36:189–208 Baddeley A, Gathercole S, Papagno C (1998) The phonological loop as a language learning device. Psychol Rev 105:158–173 Bak T, Long M, Vega-Mendoza M, Sorace A (2016) Novelty, challenge, and practice: the impact of intensive language learning on attentional functions. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153485 Barac R, Bialystok E (2012) Bilingual effects on cognitive and linguistic development: role of language, cultural background, and education. Child Dev 83:413–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01707.x Barac R, Bialystok E, Castro DC, Sanchez M (2015) The cognitive development of young dual language learners: a critical review. Early Child Res Q 29:699–714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.02.003 Bialystok E (2007) Cognitive effects of bilingualism: how linguistic experience leads to cognitive change. Int J Bilingual Educ Bilingual 10:210–223. https://doi.org/10.2167/beb441.0 Bialystok E (2017) The bilingual adaptation: how minds accommodate experience. Psychol Bull 143:233–262. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000099 Bialystok F, Craik FIM, Ryan J (2006) Executive control in a modified antisaccade task: effects of aging and bilingualism. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 32:1341–1354. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.32.6.1341 Bialystok E, Craik FIM, Green DW, Gollan TH (2009) Bilingual minds. Psychol Sci 10:89–129 Blumenfeld HK, Marian V (2010) Bilingualism influences inhibitory control in auditory comprehension. Cognition 118:245–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.10.012 Branzi FM, Calabria M, Boscarino ML, Costa A (2016) On the overlap between bilingual language control and domain-general executive control. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 166:21–30 Calabria M, Branzi FM, Marne P, Hernandez M, Costa A (2015) Age-related effects over bilingual language control and executive control. Bilingual Lang Cogn 18:65–78 Carlson SM, Meltzoff AN (2008) Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children. Dev Sci 11:282–298. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00675.x Costa A, Hernández M, Sebastián-Gallés N (2008) Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: evidence from the ANT task. Cognition 106:59–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2006.12.013 Costa A, Hernández M, Costa-Faidella J, Sebastián-Gallés N (2009) On the bilingual advantage in conflict processing: now you see it, now you don’t. Cognition 113:135–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2009.08.001 De Baene WD, Duyck W, Brass M, Carreiras M (2015) Brain circuit for cognitive control is shared by task and language switching. J Cogn Neurosci 27:1–14 Declerck M, Eben C, Grainger J (2019) A different perspective on domain-general language control using the flanker task. Acta Psychol 198:102884 Dunabeitia JA, Hernandez JA, Anton E, Macizo P, Estevez A, Fuentes LJ, Carreiras M (2014) The inhibitory advantage in bilingual children revisited: myth or reality? Exp Psychol 61:234–251. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000243 Forster KI, Forster JC (2003) DMDX: a windows display program with millisecond accuracy. Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput 35:116–124 Green DW, Abutalebi J (2013) Language control in bilinguals: the adaptive control hypothesis. J Cogn Psychol 25:515–530 Hansen LB, Morales J, Macizo P, Dunabeitia JA, Saldana D, Carreiras M, Fuentes L, Bajo MT (2017) Reading comprehension and immersion schooling: evidence from component skills. Dev Sci. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12454 Hilchey MD, Klein RM (2011) Are there bilingual advantages on nonlinguistic interference tasks? Implications for the plasticity of executive control processes. Psychon Bull Rev 18:625–658 Huang T, Loerts H, Steinkrauss R (2020) The impact of second- and third-language learning on language aptitude and working memory. Int J Bilingual Educ Bilingual. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1703894 Inquisit 4 [Computer software] (2014) http://www.millisecond.com Janus M, Lee Y, Moreno S, Bialystok E (2016) Effects of short-term music and second-language training on executive control. J Exp Child Psychol 144:84–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.11.009 Javan SS, Ghonsooly B (2017) Learning a foreign language: a new path to enhancement of cognitive functions. J Psycholing Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-017-9518-7 Kalia V, Lane PD, Wilbourn MP (2018) Cognitive control and phonological awareness in the acquisition of second language vocabulary within the Spanish–English dual immersion context. Cogn Dev 48:176–189 Kalia V, Daneri MP, Wilbourn MP (2019) Relations between vocabulary and executive functions in Spanish–English dual language learners. Bilingual Lang Cogn 22:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728917000463 Legault J, Fang S, Lan Y, Li P (2019) Structural brain changes as a function of second language vocabulary training: effects of learning context. Brain Cogn 134:90–102 Lemhofer K, Broersma M (2012) Introducing LexTALE: a quick and valid Lexical Test for advanced learners of English. Behav Res Methods 44:325–343. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-011-0146-0 Luk GC (2008) The anatomy of the bilingual influence on cognition: levels of functional use and proficiency of language. Dissert Abstr Int Sect B Sci Eng 69:3868 Mackey A, Sachs R (2012) Older learners in SLA research: a first look at working memory, feedback, and L2 development: older learners in SLA research. Lang Learn 62:704–740 McVeigh C, Wylie J, Mulhern G (2019) Verbal and visuospatial working memory in immersion educated bilingual children. Int J Bilingual Educ Bilingual 22:505–517. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2016.1271769 Miyake A, Friedman NP (2012) The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions four general conclusions. Curr Direct Psychol Sci 21:8–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458 Miyake A, Friedman NP, Emerson MJ, Witzki AH, Howerter A, Wager TD (2000) The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn Psychol 41:49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Naeem K, Filippi R, Periche-Tomas E, Papageorgiou A, Bright P (2018) The importance of socioeconomic status as a modulator of the bilingual advantage in cognitive ability. Front Psychol 9:1818. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01818 Nicolay AC, Poncelet M (2013) Cognitive advantage in children enrolled in a second-language immersion elementary school program for three years. Bilingual Lang Cogn 16:597–607. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728912000375 Nicolay AC, Poncelet M (2015) Cognitive benefits in children enrolled in an early bilingual immersion school: a follow up study. Bilingual Lang Cogn 18:789–795. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728914000868 Paap KR, Greenberg ZI (2013) There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Cogn Psychol 66:232–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.12.002 Pereira FS, Yassuda MS, Oliveira AM, Forlenza OV (2008) Executive dysfunction correlates with impaired functional status in older adults with varying degrees of cognitive impairment. Int Psychogeriatr 20:1104–1115. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610208007631 Poarch GJ, Krott A (2019) A bilingual advantage? An appeal for a change in perspective and recommendations for future research. Behav Sci 9:95. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs9090095 Prior A, Gollan T (2011) Good language-switchers are good task-switchers: evidence from Spanish–English and Mandarin–English bilinguals. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 17:682–691 Prior A, MacWhinney B (2009) A bilingual advantage in task switching. Bilingual Lang Cogn 13:253. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728909990526 Puric D, Vuksanovic J, Chondrogianni V (2017) Cognitive advantages of immersion education after 1 year: effects of amount of exposure. J Exp Child Psychol 159:296–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.02.011 Ramos S, Fernandez-García Y, Anton E, Casaponsa A, Dunabeitia JA (2017) Does learning a language in the elderly enhance switching ability? J Neurolinguist 43:39–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2016.09.001 Raven JC (1958) Standard progressive matrices. Lewis, London Singh N, Mishra RK (2012) Does language proficiency modulate oculomotor control? Evidence from Hindi-English bilinguals. Bilingual Lang Cogn 15:771–781. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355617711000580 Singh N, Mishra R (2013) Second language proficiency modulates conflict-monitoring in an oculomotor Stroop task: evidence from Hindi–English bilinguals. Front Psychol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00322 Singh N, Mishra RK (2015) The modulatory role of second language proficiency on performance monitoring: evidence from a saccadic countermanding task in high and low proficient bilinguals. Front Psychol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01481 Snodgrass JG, Vanderwart M (1980) A standardized set of 260 pictures: norms for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, and visual complexity. J Exp Psychol Hum Learn Memory 6:174 Sullivan M, Janus M, Moreno S, Astheimer L, Bialystok E (2014) Early stage second-language learning improves executive control: evidence from ERP. Brain Lang 139:84–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2014.10.004 Takeuchi H, Maruyama T, Taki Y, Motoki K, Jeong H, Kotozaki Y, Shinada T, Nakagawa S, Nouchi R, Iizuka K, Yokoyama R, Yamamoto Y, Hanawa S, Araki T, Sakaki K, Sasaki Y, Magistro D, Kawashima R (2020) Effects of training of shadowing and reading aloud of second language on working memory and neural systems. Brain Imaging Behav. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-020-00324-4 Tao L, Marzecova A, Taft M, Asanowicz D, Wodniecka Z (2011) The efficiency of attentional networks in early and late bilinguals: the role of age of acquisition. Front Psychol 2:123. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00123 Tran CD, Arredondo MM, Yoshida H (2015) Differential effects of bilingualism and culture on early attention: a longitudinal study in the U.S., Argentina, and Vietnam. Front Psychol 6:795. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00795 Tse C, Altarriba J (2014) The relationship between language proficiency and attentional control in Cantonese–English bilingual children: evidence from Simon, Simon switching, and working memory tasks. Front Psychol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00954 van den Noort M, Struys E, Bosch P, Jaswetz L, Perriard B, Yeo S, Barisch P, Vermeire K, Lee S, Lim S (2019) Does the bilingual advantage in cognitive control exist and if so, what are its modulating factors? A systematic review. Behav Sci 9:27 Ware C, Damnee S, Djabelkhir L, Cristancho V, Wu YH, Benovici J, Pino M, Rigaud AS (2017) Maintaining cognitive functioning in healthy seniors with a technology-based foreign language program: a pilot feasibility study. Front Aging Neurosci 9:42 Watzinger-Tharp J, Swenson K, Mayne Z (2016) Academic achievement of students in dual language immersion. Int J Bilingual Educ Bilingual 21:913–928 Woods DL, Kishiyama MM, Yund EW, Herron TJ, Edwards B, Poliva O, Reed B (2011) Improving digit span assessment of short-term verbal memory. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2010.493149 Woumans E, Surmont J, Struys E, Duyck W (2016) The longitudinal effect of bilingual immersion schooling on cognitive control and intelligence. Lang Learn 66:76–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12171 Xie Z, Dong Y (2017) Contributions of bilingualism and public speaking to cognitive control differences among young adults. Bilingual Lang Cogn 20:55–68. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728915000474 Zhang H, Kang C, Wu Y, Ma F, Guo T (2015) Improving proactive control with training on language switching in bilinguals. NeuroReport. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0000000000000353