The early dredgers: ?naturalizing? in British seas, 1830?1850

Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger during the Years 1872?76, 50 vols. (London: H.M.S.O., 1880?1895). The literature relating to the Challenger expedition is now quite extensive, especially since the Second International Congress on the History of Oceanography (Edinburgh, 1972), which was devoted to a ?Challenger Expedition Centenary? see Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, series B, 72?73 (1972). See also Margaret Deacon, Scientists and the Sea, 1650?1900: A Study of Marine Science (London: Academic Press, 1971), chap. 15; Susan Schlee, The Edge of an Unfamiliar World: A History of Oceanography (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1973), chap. 3; Eric Linklater, The Voyage of the ?Challenger? (London: John Murray, 1972); Harold L. Burstyn, ?Science and Government in the Nineteenth Century: the Challenger Expedition and Its Report,? Bull. Inst. Océanog., Fondation Albert I er, Prince de Monaco, special no. 2 (1968), 603?613; Eric L. Mills, ed., One Hundred Years of Oceanography: Essays Commemorating the Visit of ?H.M.S. Challenger? to Halifax, May 9?19, 1873 (Halifax: Dalhousie University, 1975).

Report ... of H.M.S. Challenger, A Summary of the Scientific Results, part. 2, 1430; Daniel Merriman, ?Challengers of Neptune: The ?Philosophers,?? Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 72 (1972), 17.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861). For a complete bibliography of writings by and about Forbes, and a list of existing manuscripts, see Philip F. Rehbock, ?Edward Forbes (1815?1854): An Annotated List of Published and Unpublished Writings.? J. Soc. Bibliog. Nat. Hist., 9 (1979), 171?218.

D'Arcy WentworthThompson, ?Aristotle as a Biologist,? in Oxford Lectures on Classical Subjects (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913), p. 12. See also The Works of Aristotle, vol. IV, Historia Animalium, translated by D'Arcy Thompson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910), book IV.

Forbes and SylvanusHanley, A History of British Mollusca, and Their Shells (London: John Van Voorst, 1848?1853), I, 5.

Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli, Histoire physique de la mer (Amsterdam, 1725); a shorter version was originally published in Italian as Brieve ristretto del saggio fisico intorno alla storia del mare (Venice: Presso Andrea Poletti, 1711). See John Murray and Johan Hjort, The Depths of the Ocean (London: Macmillan, 1912), p. 3; Report of H.M.S. Challenger, Summary of Results, I, 68; Jean-Marie Pérès, ?Un précurseur de l'étude du benthos de la Méditerranée: Louis-Ferdinand, comte de Marsilli,? Bull. Inst. océanog. Monaco, special no. 2 (1968), 369?376; F. C. W. Olson and Mary Ann Olson, ?Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli, the Lost Father of Oceanography,? Florida Acad. Sci., 21 (1958), 227?234.

VitalianoDonati, Essai sur l'histoire naturelle de la mer adriatique (LaHaye: Pierre de Hondt, 1758). For an English summary see Abraham Trembley, ?An Account of a Work Published in Italian by Vitaliano Donati, M.D., Containing, ?An Essay towards a Natural History of the Adriatic Sea,?? Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 49 (1756), 585?592. Donati described his ?machines pour pecher? in some detail in chap. 2. Ambrogio Soldani, Testaceographiae ac Zoophytographiae Parvae et Microscopicae, 2 vols. (Senis, 1789?1798). Although records of the oyster dredge data to the fourteenth century, its use is probably ancient. In Britain, Colchester was famous for its oysters in the time of the Roman occupation, indicating that some form of dredging device was then in use. See Michael Graham, ed., Sea Fisheries: Their Investigation in the United Kingdom (London: Edward Arnold, 1956), pp. 11, 140.

O. F. Müller, Zoologia danica; seu, Animalium Daniae et Norvegiae Rariorum ac Minus Notorum Descriptiones et Historia..., 2 vols. (Hanover and Leipzig: Weygandinis, 1779?1784); Jean Anker, Otto Friderich Müller's Zoologia Danica, trans. W. E. Calvert (Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1950), pp. 22?23, 34?35; Report of H.M.S. Challenger, Summary of Results, part. 1, p. 76; C. Wyville Thomson, The Depths of the Sea (London: Macmillan, 1873), pp. 237?239, with a figure of the dredge used by Müller; Torben Wolff [comment], Bull. Inst. Océanog. Monaco, special no. 2 (1968), 451.

Jean BaptisteLamarck, Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres, 7 vols. in 8 (Paris: Verdiére, 1815?1822). Beginning in the 1830s seminal investigations on the anatomy and life histories of invertebrates were conducted by a number of Continental biologists, including K. T. E. von Siebold (1804?1885), J. J. S. Steenstrup (1813?1897), K. G. F. R. Leuckart (1822?1898), Michael Sars (1805?1869), Sven Lovén (1809?1895), and Johannes Müller (1801?1858). See Mary P. Winsor, Starfish, Jellyfish, and the Order of Life: Issues of Nineteenth-Century Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976).

Jean-VictorAudouin and HenriMilne-Edwards, Recherches pour servir à l'histoire naturelle du littoral de la France, 2 vols. (Paris: Crochard, 1832?1834).

Even O. F. Müller had noted that the British would rather send expeditions to the far corners of the globe for natural-history purposes than explore the marine biology of their own shores. Anker, Müller's Zoologia Dancia, p. 22.

John Ellis, An Essay towards a Natural History of the Corallines (London: privately printed, 1755). Forbes paid tribute to Ellis's work in his review of G. Johnston's A History of British Zoophytes, Ann. Nat. Hist., 3 (1839), 46?50.

WilliamKirby, ?Introductory Address, Explanatory of the Views of the Zoological Club, Delivered at Its Foundation, November 29, 1823,? Zool. J., 2 (1826), 1?8.

JamesRitchie, ?A Double Centenary ? Two Notable Naturalists, Robert Jameson and Edward Forbes,? Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, series B, 66 (1956), 29?58; J. H. Ashworth, ?Charles Darwin as a Student in Edinburgh, 1825?1827,? Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 55, part. 2 (1934?35), 97?113; P. H. Jesperson, ?Charles Darwin and Dr. Grant,? Lychnos, 1 (1948?49), 159?167; Francis Darwin, ed., The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin (New York: Appleton, 1888), pp. 34?35.

I. have avoided discussion of the other possible means of undersea exploration at that time, the diving bell. Since Edmund Halley's experiments in the Thames (see Halley, ?The Art of Living under Water; or a Discourse concerning the Means of Furnishing Air at the Bottom of the Sea, in Any Ordinary Depths,? Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 20 [1716], 492?499), various types of apparatus had occasionally been tried. The emphasis, however, was always on the mechanics and physiology of remaining under water, not on the biological phenomena to be found there. So far as I have been able to determine, Forbes never used such a device.

F. Beatrice Kneen, personal communication, Oct. 8, 1973; Forbes, ?Records of the Results of Dredging,? Mag. Nat. Hist., 8 (1835), 68?69; Robert Garner, ?Edward Forbes and His Country,? Midland Nat., 1 (1878), 67?70, 90?94; W. A. Herdman, ?The Life and Work of Edward Forbes,? Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Liverpool Biological Committee (1915), p. 28; J. T. Freer, ?A Tribute from Ballaugh,? in Edward Forbes Centenary Commemoration (London: London Manx Society, 1915), pp. 42?43; Wilson and Geikie, Memoir, chap. 2. The rich scallop beds of the Isle of Man have since been an important locus of research on the biology of scallops; see Graham, Sea Fisheries, p. 175.

The fascination for science, empiricism, and critical thinking for which the eighteenth-century acquired its title as the Age of Reason had, since the middle of that century, been much more prevalent in Edinburgh than in London, where such sources of innovation were regarded with suspicion by conservative powers in the government and the Church. See J. H.Plumb, ?Reason and Unreason in the Eighteenth-Century: The English Experience?, in Plumb and Vinton A. Dearing, Some Aspects of Eighteenth-Century England (Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, 1971), pp. 1?26.

Edinburgh Committee for the Meeting of the British Association, Edinburgh's Place in Scientific Progress (Edinburgh: W. and R. Chambers, 1921), chap. 5; Ritchie, ?A Double Centenary?, pp. 37?38; James Ritchie, ?Natural History and the Emergence of Geology in the Scottish Universities?, Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc., 15 (1952), 297?316; George Shepperson, ?The Intellectual Background of Charles Darwin's Student Years at Edinburgh?, in M. Banton, ed., Darwinism and the Study of Society (London: Tavistock Publications, 1961), pp. 17?35.

Grant, who later became professor of comparative anatomy and zoology in London, published extensively in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal in the 1820s. Dalyell, a barrister and antiquarian, published an important study of planarians (flatworms) in 1814, and the two-volume Rare and Remarkable Animals of Scotland in 1847.

One of Forbes's earliest extant poems, ?The Anatomy Bill?, satirized the state of anatomy at the time Parliament was taking action to put the resurrectionists out of business. See Wilson and Geikie, Memoir, p. 95.

RobertKnox, ?Observations on the Anatomy of the Rorqual (a Whalebone Whale of the Largest Magnitude), Drawn up from the Dissection of a Specimen Found Dead off North Berwick?, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 1 (1833), 14?15; ?Account of the Dissection of a Young Rorqual, or Short Whalebone Whale (the Balaena Rostrata of Fabricius); with a Few observations on the Anatomy of the Foetal Mysticetus?, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 1 (1834), 63?65. See also Henry Lonsdale, A Sketch of the Life and Writings of Robert Knox, the Anatomist (London: Macmillan, 1870), chap. 9. The skeleton still hangs majestically above other collections in the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh.

IsobelRae, Knox the Anatomist (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1964), pp. 109?110; James A. Ross and Hugh W. Y. Taylor, ?Robert Knox's Catalogue?, J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 10 (1955), 269?276.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861), p. 143.

HenryLonsdale, ?Biography of John Goodsir?, in WilliamTurner, ed., Anatomical Memoirs of John Goodsir (Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1868).

After Forbes's death, Goodsir moved into the house where Forbes had died, occupying it intermittently until his own death thirteen years later. He was buried in Edinburgh's Dean Cemetery in the plot immediately adjacent to Forbes.

Harry Goodsir (1816?1847) began a promising career in the study of invertebrates, especially the Crustacea. Unfortunately, in 1845 he joined Sir John Franklin's Arctic expedition as assistant surgeon of H.M.S. Erebus; the entire expedition was lost in 1847.

From 1839 until 1841, Forbes, the Goodsirs, and George E. Day (1815?1872; later professor of anatomy at St Andrews) shared a top-story flat at no. 21 Lothian Street in Edinburgh. As much a museum and menagerie as an apartment, the abode was crowded with various live quadrupeds, caged birds, and invertebrates in aquaria, as well as a plethora of preserved, stuffed, and fossilized organisms. Ironically the Royal Scottish Museum now occupies this site. See Lonsdale, ?Biography of John Goodsir?, pp. 97?99.

See John B. Tait, ?Oceanography in Scotland during the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries?, Bull. Inst. Océanog. Monaco, special no. 2 (1968), 281?292; Jessie M. Sweet, ?Robert Jameson and the Explorers: The Search for the North-West Passage, Part I?, Ann. Sci., 31 (1974), 21?47. Jameson's predecessor John Walker had also included lectures on ?Hydrography? in his natural-history course of the 1790s. See John Walker, Institutes of Natural History; Containing the Heads of the Lectures in Natural History (Edinburgh: Stewart, Ruthven, 1792).

Knox had been a member of the Royal Physical Society since 1811 and was its president for 1813?14. See ?Laws of the Royal Physical Society?, Royal Physical Society MSS, Edinburgh University Library.

?Laws of the Royal Physical Society?, p. 3.

In 1854, the year of Forbes's death, the three concurrently serving presidents were the geologist Hugh Miller; the zoologist John Fleming; and the anonymous author of the controversial Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, Robert Chambers. In 1858 the Wernerian Natural History Society was incorporated into the Royal Physical; Jameson's old and famous society thereby came to an end; Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., 1 (1858), 436?438. Also David Grieve, ?Letter, descriptive of the Society's Meetings between the Years 1828?29 and 1836?37?, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc., 4 (1874), 19?22; Alastair G. Beattie, personal communication, May 10, 1974.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861), p. 160;Grieve, ?Letter?, pp. 21?22.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S., (Cambridge Macmillan, 1861). pp. 142?143.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edaward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861). p. 161.Letter, Forbes to William Christy, Esq., 1836, Ward MSS, Linnean Society of London. (See below, note 39).

Forbes, Malacologia Monensis (Edinburgh: John Carfrae, 1838). It was reviewed in Ann. Nat. Hist., 1 (1838), 320?321.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge Macmillan, 1861). p. 218.

Forbes, ?Records of the Results of Dredging,? Mag. Nat. Hist., 8 (1835), 68?69, 591?594; 9 (1836), 191?193. See also Forbes, ?On a Shell-Bank in the Irsh Sea, Considered Zoologically and Geologically,? Ann. Nat. Hist., 4 (1839?1840), 217?223.

Forbes, A History of British Starfishes, and Other Animals of the Class Echinodermata (London: John Van Voorst, 1841).

Letter to ?William Christy, Esq. Junr. Clapham Road, London,? 1836, Ward MSS, Linnean Society of London. Internal evidence dates this letter as approximately June 10, 1836. Christy was a Fellow of the Linnean Society and a nonresident member of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, which Forbes helped to found in 1836.

Forbes may have been a member of the B.A.A.S. as early as 1834 (see W. B.Bottomly, ?Tribute from a Botanist,? in Edward Forbes Centenary Commemoration [London: London Manx Society, 1915], pp. 37?39), but there is no indication of his attending the annual meetings until 1836.

On the early history of the British Association, see the three articles by A. D.Orange: ?The British Association for the Advancement of Science: The Provincial Background,? Sci. Stud., 1 (1971), 315?329; ?The Origins of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,? Brit. J. Hist. Sci., 6 (1972), 152?176; ?The Idols of the Theatre: The British Association and Its Early Critics,? Ann. Sci., 32 (1975), 277?294; and O. J. R. Howarth, The British Association for the Advancement of Science: A Retrospect, 1831?1921 (London: Burlington House, 1922).

William Whewell, ?On the Recent Progress and Present State of Mineralogy,? Rep. Br. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1831?1832, pp. 322?365; William Conybeare, ?On the Progress, Actual State, and Ulterior Prospects of Geology,? ibid., pp. 365?414; Leonard Jenyns, ?On the Recent Progress and Present State of Zoology,? ibid., 1834, pp. 143?251; John Lindley, ?On the Principal Questions at Present Debated in the Philosophy of Botany,? ibid., 1833, pp. 27?57.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861). p. 226 (quoted from a letter to John Percy).

Letter, Forbes to John Stuart Blackie, June 15 [1850?], Blackie Papers, vol. 2,642, nos. 229?230, Scottish National Library, Edinburgh.

In addition to the Reports of the association, the Athenaeum journal is an excellent source of information on these meetings, especially for the discussions which followed section papers. The Athenaeum's reporters were granted special permission to attend the meetings. See Athenaeum, 1839, p. 685.

Howarth, The British Association, 2nd ed. (London: The Association, 1931), pp. 90?92; M. Schofield, ?Scientists' Clubs,? Chem. Brit., 6 (1970), 537?538; Lit Gaz., 1852, p. 700; anon., ?Scientific Dinners,? Nat. Sci., 2 (1893), 1?3.

Forbes, A History of British Starfishes, and Other Animals of the Class Echinodermata (London: John Van Voorst, 1841). p. 48; David Heppell, ?Jeffreys, John Gwyn,? Dict. Sci. Biog. VII, 91?92; W. B. Carpenter, obituary to Jeffreys, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 38 (1884?85), xiv.

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1835, pp. xxviii-xxix; 1836, p. xviii.

Forbes, ?Notice of Sixteen Species of Testacea New to Scotland,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1836, part. 2, p. 99; Athenaeum, 1836, p. 634.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861). pp. 226?228.

Beudant, ?Mémoire sur la possibilité de faire vivre des mollusques fluviatiles dans les eaux salées et des mollusques marine dans les eaux douces, considerée sous le rapport de la géologie,? J. Physique, 83 (1816), 268?284. See also Martha B. Kendall, ?Beudant, Francois-Sulpice,? Dict. Sci. Biog., II, 106.

Forbes and T. A. B. Spratt, ?On a Remarkable Phenomenon Presented by the Fossils in the Fresh-Water Tertiary of the Island of Cos,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1845, part. 2, p. 59.

Forbes, ?On New and Rare Forms of British Plants and Animals,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1837, part. 2, p. 102; Athenaeum, 1837, pp. 698?699.

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1937, p. xx.

Forbes, ?On the Distribution of Terrestrial Pulmonifera in Europe,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1838, part. 2, p. 112.

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1838, p. xxi; Athenaeum, 1838, p. 678.

George Wilson and Archibald Geikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861), pp. 244?245.

Forbes, ?Report on the Distribution of Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British Isles,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1839, part. 1, pp. 127?147.

Forbes and Goodsir, ?Notice of Zoological Researches in Orkney and Shetland during the Month of June, 1839,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1839, part. 2, pp. 79?82; Athenaeum, 1839, p. 647.

Forbes and Goodsir, ?On the Ciliograda of the British Seas,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1839, part. 2, pp. 85?86; Athenaeum, 1839, p. 662. See also Forbes, ?On Two British Species of Cydippe,? Ann. Nat. Hist., 3 (1839), 145?150.

See Athenaeum, 1839, p. 662, for comments to this effect by J. E. Gray and Edwin Lankester.

CharlesLyell, Principles of Geology, 3 vols. (London: John Murray, 1830?1833), II, 130.

CharlesLyell, Principles of Geology, 3 vols. (London: John Murray, 1830?1833), II, p. 107.

HenryT. Dela Beche, Researches in Theoretical Geology (New York: F. J. Huntington, 1837), p. 200 (1st ed.: London, 1834).

HenryT. Dela Beche, Researches in Theoretical Geology (New York: F. J. Huntington, 1837), pp. 335?342.

Athenaeum, 1839, p. 704.

Lyell divided the Cenozoic period into four epochs according to the following percentages of surviving species (Principles [1st American, from 5th London ed.; Philadelphia: James Kay, 1837], II, 226.): Newer Pliocene, 90?95%; Older Pliocene, 35?50; Miocene, 17; Eocene, 3% MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9% vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9qq-f0-yqaqVeLsFr0-vr% 0-vr0db8meaabaqaciGacaGaaeqabaWaaeaaeaaakeaadaWccaqaai% aaigdaaeaacaaIYaaaaaaa!3AC6!\[{\raise0.7ex\hbox{$1$} \!\mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {1 2}}\right.\kern-\nulldelimiterspace}\!\lower0.7ex\hbox{$2$}}\].

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1839, part. 1, p. xxvi (italics mine).

Athenaeum, 1839, p. 704.

Dict. Nat. Biog., XVIII, 467?468; Quart. J. Geol. Soc. London, 23 (1867), xlvi?xlvii; Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen, III, 378?379; Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc., 2 (1867), 228?234. The Smiths of Jordanhill were neighbors and close friends of the botanical Hookers. A childhood friendship between Joseph Hooker and one of James Smith's daughters survived into the twentieth century. Apparently Smith was also acquainted with the explorer James Clark Ross, for it was at the former's residence that Joseph Hooker met Ross in 1838, subsequent to his joining Ross's Antarctic cruise. See Leonard Huxley, Life and Letters of Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, 2 vols. (New York: D. Appleton, 1918), I, 37?38; II, 445.

RobertStevenson, ?Observations upon the Alveus or General Bed of the German Ocean and British Channel?, Mem. Wern. Soc., 2 (1818), 464?490 (read March 2, 1816); ?On the Bed of the German Ocean?, Mem. Wern. Soc., 3 (1821), 314?336 (read April 8, 1820); David Stevenson, Life of Robert Stevension (Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1878), chap. 16.

JamesSmith, ?On Indications of Changes in the Relative Level of Sea and Land in the West of Scotland?, Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 2 (1836), 427?429. All of Smith's essays were subsequently collected as Researches in Newer Pliocene and Post-Tertiary Geology (Glasgow: John Gray, 1862); the paper cited above appears on pp. 1?5.

Speculation on the climate of Britain in earlier geologic epochs dates at least to Robert Hooke's Tractatus de Terrae Motis, published in 1705 (though written in 1688). Hooke believed that England had once enjoyed a warmer climate, on the basis of the discovery of fossil turtles and ammonites. Similar reasoning was employed by Buffon (Epoques de la nature) to explain the existence of mammoths in Siberia. And by the early nineteenth century it was generally accepted that a warmer climate had prevailed worldwide during the Carboniferous period, on the basis of the presence of fossils of tropical floras in temperate regions. Toward the close of the eighteenth century such theories began to involve recent species, though it was not until Smith's papers that the subject received a definitive statement. The Swedish zoologist Sven Lovén independently reached conclusions similar to Smith's regarding the Mollusca of northern Scandinavia. See Lyell, Principles, I, 92?103; Nils von Hofsten, ?Zur älteren Geschichte der Discontinuitätsproblems in der Biogeographie?, Zoologische Annalen, 7 (1919), 282?283.

See above, note 67. The term ?Pleistocene? had not yet become common usage for the epoch immediately preceding the present.

JamesSmith, ?On the Last Changes in the Relative Levels of the Land and Sea in the British Islands?, Mem. Wern. Soc., 8 (1837?38), 49?107; ?On the Phenomena of the Elevated Marine Beds of the Basin of the Clyde?, Researches, 28?64 (read to the Wernerian Society, Jan. 26, 1839); ?On the Climate of the Newer Pliocene Tertiary Period?, Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 3 (1839), 118?119; ?On the Relative Ages of the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Deposits of the Basin of the Clyde?, Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 3 (1839), 149?150. Similar reasoning, from changes in fossil Mollusca to changes in past climate, had been used by Deshayes in 1836 to argue for a gradual decrease in earth temperature in Europe during the Tertiary period; see G. P. Deshayes, ?An Estimate of the Probable Degrees of Temperature in Europe during the Tertiary Periods, Founded upon the Study of Fossil Shells?, Mag. Nat. Hist., 1 (1837), 9?16 (read to the French Academy, 1836).

Forbes, ?On the Asteriadae of the Irish Sea?, Mem. Wern. Soc., 8 (1837?38), 114?128; James Smith, ?On the Last Changes in the Relative Levels of the Land and Sea in the British Isles?, Mem. Wern Soc., 8 (1837?38), 49?107. One of the mollusk plates for Smith's article was drawn by Forbes and some of the descriptions were contributed by him.

JamesHardy, ed., Selections from the Correspondence of Dr. George Johnston (Edinburgh: David Douglas, 1892), p. 122. From a later expedition with Smith, Landsborough published ?Account of a Dredging Excursion off the Ayrshire Coast?, Ann. Nat. Hist., 15 (1845), 251?255. Landsborough knew well the algae of the Scottish west coast. See also Landsborough, Arran, Its Topography, Natural History, and Antiquities, 2nd ed., with a memoir of the author (Ardrosson: Arthur Guthrie, 1875).

Forbes, ?On the Connexion between the Distribution of the Existing Flora and Fauna of the British Isles, and the Geological Changes Which Have Affected Their Area, Especially during the Epoch of the Northern Drift,? Mem. Geol. Surv. U.K., 1 (1846), 365.

James Smith, ?On the Relative Ages of the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Deposits of the Basin of Clyde?, Researches, pp. 76?77. ?Dr. Beck? was probably H. H. Beck (1799?1863) author of an 1837 index of Mollusca and of the article ?Notes on the Geology of Denmark?, Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 2 (1838), 217?220, and Phil. Mag., 8 (1838), 553?556. ?Conchology is riz? probably meant: Conchology has taken a great step toward becoming a science.

Forbes, ?Lectures on Zoo-Geology and Psycho-Zoology?, in Samuel M. Brown and Edward Forbes, Popular Lectures on the Philosophy of the Sciences [1840], 8 pp. Forbes's part in conceiving a science of paleoecology has been stressed by Joel W. Hedgpeth in his introduction to the Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleoecology, Geological Society of America, Memoir 67 (1957), I, 2.

Forbes, ?On a Shell-Bank in the Irish Sea, Considered Zoologically and Geologically?, Ann. Nat. Hist., 4 (1839?1840), p. 217. In spite of the implication in the second sentence, it seems doubtful that Forbes had had geological considerations in mind during these dreging activities until quite late; at least there is no independent evidence of such an interest until 1839. Wilson and Geikie (Memoir, p. 168) mention an 1832 manuscript by Forbes, ?Notes on the Geology of the Island [of Man]? (probably no longer extant), but give no indication that it referred to his marine zoological work.

Forbes, ?On a Shell-Bank?, p. 217.

Ibid., pp. 222?223.

Forbes, ?On the Comparative Elevation of Testacea in the Alps?, Mag. Zool. Bot., 1 (1837), 257?259.

Letter, Forbes to J. E. Gray, Oct. 13, 1839, J. E. Gray Papers, American Philosophical Society.

Forbes, ?On the Associations of Mollusca on the British Coasts, Considered with Reference to Pleistocene Geology?, Edinburgh Academic Annual (1840), pp. 175?183. It remains enigmatic that Forbes chose this obscure journal for the publication of what he must have regarded as one of his more important papers. His biographers mention his being one of the founders of the interdepartmental student organization at the university, which published the first and, as it turned out, the only volume of the Academic Annual. (Wilson and Geikie, Memoir, p. 255.) Conceivably Forbes was lending his support to what he had hoped might become an important organization and journal.

Forbes. ?On the Connexion?, p. 371.

AntonioRisso, Ichthyologie de Nice, ou histoire naturelle des poissons du departement des Alpes Maritimes (Paris: F. Schoell, 1810), pp. xiv-xv; Gören Wahlenberg, Flora Laponica (Berlin: Reimer, 1812); J. V. F. Lamoroux, Histoire des polypiers coralligenes flexibles (Caen: F. Poisson, 1816), pp. xlvii?lx; Charles D'Orbigny, ?Essai sur les plantes marines des cotes du Golfe de Gascogne, et particulierment sur celles du departement de la Charente-Inferieure?, Memoires du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, 6 (1820), 163?203; Lamoroux, ?Memoire sur la Geographie des plantes marines?, Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 7 (1826), 60?82; H. Milne-Edwards and J. V. Audouin, Recherches pour servir a l'histoire naturelle du littoral de la France, 2 vols. (Paris: Crochard, 1832?1834); M[ichael] Sars, Beskrivelser og Iagttagelsor (Bergen: Thorstein Hallager, 1835). Concurrent with Forbes's work was A. S. Örsted, De Regionibus Marinis: Elementa Topographiae Historiconaturalis Freti Öresund (Hauniae: J. C. Scharling, 1844). A valuable bibliography appears in Maxwell S. Doty, ?Rocky Intertidal Surfaces?, in Joel W. Hedgpeth, ed., Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleoecology, Geological Society of America, Memoir 67 (1957), I, 535?585.

Forbes, ?On the Associations of Mollusca?, pp. 182?183. This theme, ?the influence of man's agency through the progress of civilization?, reappears briefly in Forbes's ?On the Connexion?, p. 398.

?On the Associations of Mollusca?, p. 178.

Ibid. (italics are Forbes's).

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 179.

Ibid.

Ibid., pp. 179?180.

Ibid., p. 177.

Ibid., p. 183.

Ibid., pp. 181?182.

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1839, p. xxvi. This was the largest sum allotted to Section D for any purpose that year. Three of the committe members were officers of the section at the time: Gray was a vice-president; Forbes and Patterson were secretaries. The person whose name appeared first in the list of committee members was the only one permitted to apply to the association treasurer for payments against the grant. That Gray was so empowered, rather than Forbes, may reflect a policy of placing the more prestigious scientists as heads of committees, even though the de facto leader might be someone else. See Letter, Forbes to John Edward Gray, Oct. 13, 1839, J. E. Gray Papers, American Philosophical Society.

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1839, p. xxvi.

Several long reports and a number of brief statements of the results of Forbes's committee and its offshoots appeared in the annual Reports during the period 1840?1869. No summary statement was ever published covering all the areas dredged, persons involved, funds expended, procedures used, difficulties encountered, etc. The permanent organ of the B.A.A.S., now located on Savile Row in London, has virtually no records for this period.

Forbes did find time and weather in the fall of 1839 to dredge, by himself, both coasts of the Isle of Man. See Forbes, ?On the British Actinidae?, Ann. Nat. Hist., 5 (1840), 180?184; Athenaeum, 1840, p. 778.

Committee report, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1840, part. 1, pp. 444?445; Athenaeum, 1840, p. 778.

This is the full four-stanza version which appeared in the Lit. Gaz., Nov. 7, 1840, pp. 725?726. When it has been republished elsewhere, the final stanza has usually been omitted. Satirization of the dredgers was not confined to Red Lion gatherings; see anon., ?British Association for the Advancement of Science? Punch, 7 (1844), 155.

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1840, part. 1, p. 444; Athenaeum, 1840, p. 778. Forbes discussed the need for these preparations in a letter to J. E. Gray, Oct. 13, 1839, J. E. Gray Papers, American Philosophical Society.

GeorgeJohnston, A History of British Zoophytes (Edinburgh: W. H. Lizars, 1838; 2nd ed., London: Van Voorst, 1847).

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1840, part. 1, p. 444; Athenaeum, 1840, p. 778.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861), pp. 268?269.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861), p. 179.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861)., p. 280.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S., (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861)., p. 308; Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1842, p. xxiv.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861), pp. 306?312.

See Forbes, ?On Two Remarkable Marine Invertebrata Inhabiting the Aegean Sea?, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1841, part. 2, p. 72; letter to Richard Taylor, May 7, 1841, at Syra, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 7 (1841), 348?350; letter to John Hutton Balfour, Feb. 28, 1842, at Macri, Asia Minor, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 9 (1842), 250?252. Also Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 9 (1842), 239?242; 10 (1842?43), 124?125, 205, 348.

Forbes, ?Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea, and on Their Distribution, Considered as Bearing on Geology?, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1843, part. 1, pp. 130?193.

Descriptions of the Aegean radiates were submitted to the Linnean Society, to which Forbes was elected in 1843. Forbes, ?On the Radiata of the Eastern Mediterranean, Part I., Ophiuridae?, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, 19 (1843), 143?153; ?On Pectinura, a New Genus of Ophiuridae?, Proc. Linn. Soc. London, 1 (1843), 167?168; ?On the Ophiuridae of the Aegean Sea?, Proc. Linn. Soc. London, 1 (1843), 174?177; ?On the Radiata of the Eastern Mediterranean: Order Echinidae?, Proc. Linn. Soc. London, 1 (1844), 184?186 (the Linnean Society holds Forbes's manuscript of this paper, no. 971 which was read to the Society on Jan. 16, 1844; the MS differs considerably from the published version); ?On the Medusa Proboscidalis of Forskähl?, Proc. Linn. Soc. London, 1 (1844), 222?223.

Forbes, ?Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea?, p. 152. This term was not precisely defined but probably referred to a vaguely conceived collection of sea-water properties such as salinity and organic matter.

Ibid.

For another discussion of Forbes's Aegean accomplishments, see Eric L.Mills, ?Edward Forbes, John Gwyn Jeffries, and British Dredging Before the Challenger Expedition?, J. Soc. Bibliogr. Nat. Hist., 8 (1978), 507?536.

Forbes, ?Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea?, p. 154.

Ibid., p. 173.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Karl Möbius's subsequent (1877) definition of the ?biocönosis,? or ecological community, stressed the biological side of the species assemblage. In the interim, much attention had been drawn toward inter- and intraspecies relationships by the Origin of Species. See Frank N. Egerton, ?Studies of Animal Populations from Lamarck to Darwin,? J. Hist. Biol., 1 (1968), p. 241.

CharlesDarwin, ?Essay of 1842,? in FrancisDarwin, ed., The Foundations of the Origin of Species (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1909), pp. 7?8.

CharlesDarwin, ?Essay of 1842,? in FrancisDarwin, ed., The Foundations of the Origin of Species (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1909), 178?179.

CharlesDarwin, ?Essay of 1842,? in FrancisDarwin, ed., The Foundations of the Origin of Species (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1909), p. 179.

Recall that Forbes had only recently lost his family stipend and was now doing hack work to secure a gentleman's income.

Recall that Forbes had only recently lost his family stipend and was now doing hack work to secure a gentleman's income.

Robert Patterson and Robert Ball, ?Report of the Committee on Marine Zoology,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1841, part. 1, pp. 331, xxiii.

WilliamThompson, ?Results of Deep Dredging off the Mull of Galloway, by Capt. Beechey, R. N.,? Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 10 (1842?43), 21?24; Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1842, part. 2, p. 75.

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1843, p. xx; 1844, pp. xlviii-xlix. The only book-length publication deriving from Forbes's Aegean years was: Lt. T. A. B. Spratt and Edward Forbes, Travels in Lycia, Milyas, and the Cibyratis, 2 vols. (London: Van Voorst, 1847). A full scientific treatment of his Mediterranean marine research was one of several works Forbes left unfinished at his death; according to Hooker he had planned to append it to a work on the natural history of Aristotle (obituary, Gardener's Chronicle, 1854, pp. 771?772).

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1843, p. xxiii. Gray had evidently relinquished his position, leaving Forbes as head of the committee.

Forbes, ?On the Dredge,? appendix to Alfred Tulk and Arthur Henfry, Anatomical Manipulation (London: Van Voorst, 1844), pp. 405?407. See also Robert Ball, ?Notice of a New Dredge for Natural-History Purposes,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1849, p. 72; Athenaeum, 1849, p. 1018; L. F. de Pourtales, ?Directions for Dredging,? Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, 2 (1870?71), 451?454. According to Wyville Thomson, the Ball Dredge was used as early as 1838; The Depths of the Sea (note 8), p. 241.

Forbes, ?On the Dredge,? appendix to Alfred Tulk and Arthur Henfry, Anatomical Manipulation (London: Van Voorst, 1844), p. 406.

Forbes, ?On the Dredge,? appendix to Alfred Tulk and Arthur Henfry, Anatomical Manipulation (London: Van Voorst, 1844), p. 407.

Also frequently spelled ?MacAndrew? and ?McAndrew.?

Forbes was elected a corresponding member of the Liverpool Natural History Society in 1838. See ?Letter of Professor Edward Forbes on the Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea,? Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., 8 (1894), 156?158; W. A. Herdman, ?The Life and Work of Edward Forbes,? Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Liverpool Marine Biological Committee (1915), p. 25.

Forbes and Robert M'Andrew, ?Report of the Dredging Committee for 1844,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1844, part. 1, pp. 390?391; Athenaeum, 1844, p. 930. See also M'Andrew, ?An Account of Some Zoological Researches, Made in the British Seas, during the Last Summer,? Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. Liverpool, 1, part. 1 (1844?45), 89?96; ?On Marine Dredging, with Notes and Observations, the Result of Personal Experience during the Summers of 1846 and 1847,? ibid., 1, part. 4, pp. 80?89.

Forbes, ?On the Pulmograde Medusae of the British Seas,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1846, part. 2, pp. 84?85.

Robert M'Andrew, ?Notes on the Distribution and Range in Depth of Mollusca and Other Marine Animals Observed on the Coasts of Spain, Portugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1850, part. 1, pp. 264?304.

Forbes, ?Report on the Investigation of British Marine Zoology by Means of the Dredge. Part I. The Infra-Littoral Distribution of Marine Invertebrata on the Southern, Western, and Northern Coasts of Great Britain,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1850, part. 1, p. 193; extracts appeared in the Edinburgh New Phil. J., 51 (1851), 386?391; 52 (1852), 68?72.

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1850, part. 1, pp. 248?263.

Ibid., p. 263.

Forbes and JohnGoodsir, ?On Some Remarkable Marine Invertebrata New to the British Seas,? Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 20 (1853), 307?315; Forbes, ?Notes of Professor Edward Forbes' Excursion to the Hebrides,? Edinburgh New Phil. J., 49 (1850), 388?389; Forbes and Goodsir, ?New Marine Animals Discovered during a Cruise among the Hebrides,? Edinburgh New Phil. J., 51 (1851), 195?196; Forbes, ?On a species of Aequorea Inhabiting the British Seas,? Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 19 (1851), 272?275; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd ser., 14 (1851), 294.

The Natural History of the European Seas, edited and continued by RobertGodwin-Austen (London: John Van Voorst, 1859).

In addition to Goodsir and Balfour, Thomson's committee included Charles W. Peach, a well-known malacologist, and Robert K. Greville (1794?1866), an algologist. Patterson's committee included Hyndman, George Dickie (1812?1882), botanist and professor of natural history at Queen's College, Belfast, and a Mr. John Grainger of Belfast. Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1852, p. xxxii.

GeorgeWilson and ArchibaldGeikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes, F.R.S. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1861). p. 562.

George Hyndman, ?Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1859, part. 1, pp. 116?119.

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1855, p. lxiii.

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1861, p. xlii. See also Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1858, p. xl.

E. Perceval Wright and J. Reay Greene, ?Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coast of Ireland,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1858, part. 1, p. 176.

ThomasBell, History of British Crustacea (London: Van Voorst, 1844?1847) and History of British Stalk-Eyed Crustacea (London: Van Voorst, 1853); Johnston, A History of British Zoophytes; William Thompson, The Natural Histtory of Ireland, 4 vols. (London: Reeve, Benham and Reeve, 1849?1856).

J. Gwyn Jeffreys, ?Report of the Committee Appointed for Exploring the Coasts of Shetland by Means of the Dredge,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1863, part. 1, 70?80; Alfred Merle Norman, ?Shetland Final Dredging Report ? Part II. On the Crustacea, Tunicata, Polyzoa, Echinodermata, Actinozoa, Hydrozoa, and Porifera,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1868, part. 1, pp. 247?336. Mills, ?Edward Forbes, John Gwyn Jeffreys? (note 118) treats this period in greater detail.

W. B.Carpenter, J. GwynJeffreys, and C. WyvilleThomson, ?Preliminary Report of the Scientific Exploration of the Deep Sea in H. M. Surveying Vessel Porcupine, during the Summer of 1869,? Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 18 (1869?70), 397?492.

C. WyvilleThomson, The Depths of the Sea (London: Macmillan, 1873), pp. 265?266.

See the contemporary reflections of Joseph Prestwich in his ?Anniversary Address of the President,? Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 27 (1871), xlv. A little-known disciple of Forbes, Lucas Barrett (1837?1862), carried the dredging philosophy to Jamaica, where he was Director of the West Indian Geological Survey for the period 1859?62. Barrett's short career, terminated by a diving accident, was regarded by contemporaries as having many similarities to that of Forbes. See L. J. Chubb, ?Lucas Barrett, a biography,? Geonotes, 6 (1964), Jamaica Geological Survey Pub. 91, 3?45. I am indebted to Jeremy B. C. Jackson for bringing Barrett's work to my attention.

Forbes, ?Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea,? p. 171 (italics are Forbes's).

As Forbes later noted, this similarity had been suggested in Dela Beche's Researches in Theoretical Geology (pp. 192?193). See Forbes, ?On the Light Thrown on Geology by Submarine Researches,? Edinburgh New Phil. J., 36 (1844), 323.

Forbes, ?Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea,? p. 172. He gave no physiological explanation for this phenomenon.

Darwin cited Forbes's generalization on color variance in the Origin (1st ed., p. 132) as a case of species variation under environmental influence. Though possibly valid for some Mollusca and Radiata in the Aegean, the fading of color with depth does not apply to marine animals generally.

Forbes, ?Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea,? p. 167.

Ibid., p. 170.

SvenEkman, Zoogeography of the Sea (New York: Macmillan, 1953), p. 264.

Forbes looked back on this lecture as providing a substantial impetus to his career. Wilson and Geikie (Memoir, p. 363) asserted that from this event Forbes ?obtained that hold, which he never afterwards lost, upon the respect and sympathy of the higher influential class of London society.?

Forbes, ?On the Light Thrown on Geology by Submarine Researches,? p. 321.

Ibid., p. 322 (italics are Forbes's). The argument that an azoic zone could account for the existence of nonfossiliferous strata was later cited as a major reason for the persistence of azoism by Forbes's younger brother, David; see ?The Depths of the Sea,? Nature, 1 (1869), 100?101.

HenryT. Dela Beche, Researches in Theoretical Geology (New York: F. J. Huntington, 1837), p. 192.

M'Andrew, ?An Account of Some Zoological Researches, Made in the British Seas, during the Last Summer,? Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. Liverpool, 1 part. 1 (1844?45), 94. On the possibility of insufficient oxygen as the cause of the azoic zone, see Thomas Williams, ?On the Physical Conditions Regulating the Vertical Distribution of Animals in the Atmosphere and the Sea,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1848, part. 2, pp. 83?84.

Forbes, ?Extracts from a Letter Dated Xanthus, Asia Minor, February 28, 1842,? Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 9 (1842), 242 (italics are Forbes's).

JohnRoss, A Voyage of Discovery, Made under the Orders of the Admiralty, in His Majesty's Ships Isabella and Alexander, for the Purpose of Exploring Baffin's Bay, and Inquiring into the Probability of a North-West Passage (London: John Murray, 1819), pp. 178?179. See A. L. Rice, ?The Oceanography of John Ross's Arctic Expedition of 1818: A Re-Appraisal,? J. Soc. Bibliog. Nat. Hist., 7 (1975), 291?319, for a careful reevaluation of Ross's alleged findings.

James ClarkRoss, A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions during the Years 1839?43, 2 vols. (London: John Murray, 1847), I, 201?203; Joseph D. Hooker, ?Note on Some Marine Animals Brought up by Deep-Sea dredging ...,? Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 16 (1945),238?239; ?The Arctic Expedition under the Command of Sir John Franklin,? letters from Harry Goodsir dated Baffin's Bay, July 7 1845, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 16 (1845), 163?166. Forbes was aware of the latter (see Natural History of the European Seas, p. 51), and had apparently examined specimens from the J. C. Ross/Hooker hauls (see Joseph Prestwich, ?Anniversary Address of the President,? Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 27 [1871], xliii).

Brief accounts of these early dredgings and their acceptance are contained in C. Wyville Thomson, The Depths of the Sea, pp. 18?21; Daniel Merriman, ?Speculations on Life at the Depths: a Nineteenth-Century Prelude,? Bull. Inst. Océanog. Monaco, special no. 2 (1968), 377?385.

Lt. [T. A. B.] Spratt, ?On the Influence of Temperature upon the Distribution of the Fauna in the Aegean Sea,? Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1848, part. 2, pp. 81?82.

Letter, Forbes to Charles Lyell, June 28, 1850, Lyell Papers, 183, American Philosophical Society.

Forbes, Natural History of the European Seas, pp. 26?27.

See C. Wyville Thomson, The Depths of the Sea, pp. 21?31; Alphonse Milne-Edwards, Rapport sur les progres récents des sciences zoologiques en France (Paris: L'Imprimerie Impériale, 1867), pp. 485?492; George Ossian Sars, On Some Remarkable Forms of Animal Life from the Great Deeps off the Norwegian Coast (Christiania: Brøgger and Christie, 1872), p. xii.

J. H.Balfour, ?Sketch of the Life of the Late Professor Edward Forbes,? Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd ser., 15 (1855), 35?52.

Letter, G. C. Wallich to A. Geikie, March 30, 1878, Geikie Papers, Edinburgh University Library (italics are Wallich's).

George CharlesWallich, The North Atlantic Seabed: Comprising a Diary of the Voyage on Board H.M.S. ?Bulldog? in 1860 (London: Van Voorst, 1862), pp. 68?70.

Letter, G. C. Wallich to A. Geikie, March 30, 1878, Geikie Papers (italics are Wallich's).

Ibid. Wallich's opinion, expressed here, supports the conclusion of A. L. Rice in ?John Ross's Artic Expedition of 1818?. For a recent study of the eccentric Wallich, see A. L. Rice, Harold L. Burstyn, and A. G. E. Jones, ?G. C. Wallich M.D.?Megalomaniac or mis-used oceanographic genius??, J. Soc. Bibliog. Nat. Hist., 7 (1976), 423?450.

Anon., review of Memoir of E. Forbes, Literary Papers and History of the British Mollusca and Their Shells, Brit. Quart. Rev., 34 (1861), 320.