The UCLA Body Project I: Gender and Ethnic Differences in Self-Objectification and Body Satisfaction Among 2,206 Undergraduates

American Society of Plastic Surgeons (2006). Dramatic rise in ethnic plastic surgery. Retrieved on June 26, 2006, from: http://www.plasticsurgery.org/news_room/press_releases/2005-ethnic-stats.cfm .

Bordo, S. (1993). Unbearable weight: Feminism, Western culture, and the body. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Cafri, G., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Measuring male body image: A review of the current methodology. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5, 18–29.

Cafri, G., Thompson, J. K., Ricciardelli, L., McCabe, M., Smolak, L., & Yesalis, C. (2005). Pursuit of the muscular ideal: Physical and psychological consequences and putative risk factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 215–239.

Carlat, D. J., & Carmago, C. A. (1991). Review of bulimia nervosa in males. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 831–843.

Cash, T. F. (2000). The multidimensional body–self relations questionnaire users’ manual: 3rd revision. Available at http://www.body-images.com .

Cash, T. F., & Deagle, E. A. (1997). The nature and extent of body-image disturbances in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 22, 107–125.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd edn.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Davis, C., & Katzman, M. A. (1999). Perfection as acculturation: Psychological correlates of eating problems in Chinese male and female students living in the United States. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25, 65–70.

Drummond, M. J. N. (2002). Men, body image, and eating disorders. International Journal of Men’s Health, 1, 89–103.

Feingold, A., & Mazzella, R. (1998). Gender differences in body image are increasing. Psychological Science, 9, 190–195.

Forbes, G. B., Jobe, R. L., & Revak, J. A. (2006). Relationship between dissatisfaction with specific body characteristics and the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Scale—3 and the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale. Body Image, 3, 295–300.

Frederick, D. A., Buchanan, G. M., Sadeghi-Azar, L., Peplau, L. A., Haselton, M. G., Berezovskaya, A., & Lipinski, R. E. (2007). Desiring the muscular ideal: Men’s body satisfaction in the United States, Ukraine, and Ghana. Psychology of Men & Masculinity (in press).

Frederick, D. A. Fessler, D. M. T., & Haselton, M. G. (2005). Do representations of male muscularity differ in men’s and women’s magazines? Body Image, 2, 81–86.

Frederick, D. A., Peplau, L. A., & Lever, J. (2006). The swimsuit issue: Correlates of body image in a sample of 52,677 heterosexual adults. Body Image, 3, 413–419.

Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 273–306.

Grabe, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2006). Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction among women in the United States : A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 622–640.

Granner, M. L., Black, D. R., & Abood, D. A. (2002). Levels of cigarette and alcohol use related to eating-disorder attitudes. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26, 43–55.

Grogan, S. (1999). Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women, and children. New York: Routledge.

Hall, C. C. I. (1995). Asian eyes: Body image and eating disorders of Asian and Asian American women. Eating Disorders, 3, 8–19.

Kaw, E. (1993). Medicalization of racial features: Asian American women and cosmetic surgery. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 7, 74–89.

Kilmartin, C. T. (2007). The masculine self, 3rd edn. New York: Sloan Publishing: Cornwall-on-Hudson.

Kozee, H. B., & Tylka, T. L. (2006). A test of objectification theory with lesbian women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 348–357.

Labre, M. P. (2002). Adolescent boys and muscular male body ideal. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30, 233–242.

Littleton, H., Breitkopf, C. R., & Berenson, A. (2005). Body image and risky sexual behaviors: An investigation in a tri-ethnic sample. Body Image, 2, 193–198.

Lucas, A., Beard, M., Kurland, L., & O’Fallon, M. (1991). 50-year trends in the incidence of anorexia nervosa in Minnesota: A population-based study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 917–922.

McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2004). Body image dissatisfaction among males across the lifespan: A review of past literature. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 56, 675–685.

McCreary, D. R., & Sadava, S. W. (2001). Gender differences in relationships among perceived attractiveness, life satisfaction, and health in adults as a function of body mass index and perceived weight. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 2, 108–116.

McCreary, D. R., Saucier, D. M., & Courtenay, W. H. (2005). The drive for muscularity and masculinity: Testing the associations among gender-role traits, behaviors, attitude, and conflict. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6, 83–94.

McKinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale: Development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 181–215.

Mishkind, M. E., Rodin, J., Silberstein, L. R., & Striegel-Moore, R. H. (1986). The embodiment of masculinity: Cultural, psychological, and behavioral dimensions. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 545–562.

Muth, J. L., & Cash, T. F. (1997). Body-image attitudes: What difference does gender make? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27, 1438–1452.

National Institute of Health (1998). Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, amd treatment of overweight and obesity in adults. September 1998 (No. 98-4083). Bethesda, MD: Author.

Neal, A. M., & Wilson, M. L. (1989). The role of skin color and features in the Black community: Implications for Black women and therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 9, 323–333.

Noles, S. W., Cash, T. F., & Winstead, B. A. (1985). Body image, physical attractiveness, and depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 88–94.

Pingitore, R., Spring, B., & Garfield, D. (1997). Gender differences in body satisfaction. Obesity Research, 5, 402–409.

Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (2002). Causes of eating disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 187–213.

Powell, M. R., & Hendricks, B. (1999). Body schema, gender, and other correlates in nonclinical populations. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 125, 33–41.

Root, M. P. P. (1990). Disordered eating in women of color. Sex Roles, 22, 525–536.

Sondhaus, E. L., Kurtz, R. M., & Strube, M. J. (2001). Body attitude, gender, and self-concept: A 30-year perspective. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 135, 413–429.

Stice, E., & Shaw, H. E. (2002). Role of body dissatisfaction in the onset and maintenance of eating pathology: A synthesis of research findings. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 985–993.

Strain, G. W., & Zumoff, B. (1992). The relationship of weight–height indices of obesity to body fat content. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 11, 715–718.

Strelan, P., & Hargreaves, D. (2005). Women who objectify other women: The vicious circle of objectification? Sex Roles, 52, 707–712.

Striegel-Moore, R. H., & Smolak, L. (2000). The influence of ethnicity on eating disorders in women. In R. M. Eisler, & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of gender, culture, and health (pp. 227–253). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Thompson, J. K. (1996). Assessing body image disturbance: Measures, methodology, and instrumentation. In J. K. Thompson (Ed.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity (pp. 49–81). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Tiggemann, M., & Kuring, J. K. (2004). The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 299–311.

Tylka, T. L. (2004). The relation between body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptomatology: An analysis of moderating variables. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 178–191.

Welborn, T. A., Knuiman, M. W., & Vu, H. T. (2000). Body mass index and alternative indices of obesity in relation to height, triceps skinfold and subsequent mortality: The Busselton health study. International Journal of Obesity Related Metabolic Disorders, 24, 108–115.