The Treatment of Epilepsy in the Elderly

Loiseau J, Loiseau P, Duche B, et al. A survey of epileptic disorders in Southwest France: seizures in elderly patients. Ann Neurol 1990; 27: 233–7 Hauser WA, Anneger JF, Kurland LT. Incidence of epilepsy and unprovoked seizures in Rochester, Minnesota: 1933–1984. Epilepsia 1993; 34: 453–68 Wallace H, Shorvon S, Tallis R. Age-specific incidence and prevalence rates of treated epilepsy in an unselected population of 2 052 922 and age-specific fertility rates of women with epilepsy. Lancet 1998; 352: 1970–3 Hauser WA, Anneger JF, Kurland LT. The incidence of epilepsy in Rochester, Minnesota 1935–1984. Epilepsia 1993; 34:453–68 Rowan AT. Recognition and assessment of seizure disorders in the elderly: epidemiology, pathophysiology and differentiation. Consult Pharm 1995; 10 Suppl. A: 4–8 Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Lee JR-J, et al. Incidence of status epilepticus and associated mortality. Epilepsia 1994; 35: 327–33 Drury I, Beydoun A. Seizure disorders of aging: differential diagnosis and patient management. Geriatrics 1993; 48: 52–8 Luhdorf K, Jensen LD, Plesner AM. Etiology of seizures in the elderly. Epilepsia 1986; 27: 458–64 So EL, Annegers JF, Hauser WA, et al. Population-based study of the risk factors of epileptic seizure following cerebral infarction. Neurology 1996; 46: 350–5 Hauser WA, Tabaddor K, Francowski R, et al. Risk factors for early posttraumatic seizures [abstract]. Neurology 1985; 35: S133 Ettinger AB, Shinnar S. New-onset seizures in an elderly hospitalized population. Neurology 1993; 43: 489–92 Lancman ME, Golimstok A, Norscini J, et al. Risk factors for developing seizures after a stroke. Epilepsia 1993; 34: 141–3 Giroud M, Gras P, Fayolle H, et al. Early seizures after acute stroke: a study of 1640 cases. Epilepsia 1994; 35: 959–64 Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Coan SP, et al. A population base study of seizures after traumatic brain injuries. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 20–4 Annegers JF, Nicolosi A, Beghi E, et al. The risk of unprovoked seizures after encephalitis and meningitis. Neurology 1988; 38: 1407–10 Hesdorffer DC, Hauser WA, Annegers JF, et al. Dementia and adult onset unprovoked seizures. Neurology 1996; 46:727–30 Hauser WA. Seizure disorders: the change with age [abstract]. Epilepsia 1992; 33 Suppl. 4: S9 Ramsey RE, Rowan AJ, Slater JD, et al. Effect of age on epilepsy and its treatment: results from the VA Cooperative Study [abstract]. Epilepsia 1994; 35 Suppl. 8: 91 Schachter SC, Cramer GW, Thompson GD, et al. An evaluation of antiepileptic drug therapy in nursing facilities. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998; 46: 1137–41 Cloyd JC, Lackner TE, Leppik IO. Antiepileptics in the elderly; pharmacoepidemiology and pharmacokinetics. Arch Fam Med 1994; 3: 589–98 Stolarek IH, Brodie AF, Brodie MJ. Management of seizures in the elderly; a survey of UK geriatricians. J R Soc Med 1995; 88: 686–9 Shumcker D. Aging and drug disposition: an update. Pharmacol Rev 1985; 37: 133–48 Bender DA. Effect of age on intestinal absorption: implications for drug absorption in the elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc 1968; 16: 1331–9 Ouslander JG. Drug therapy in the elderly. Ann Intern Med 1981; 95: 711–22 Goa KL, Sorkin EM. Gabapentin: a review of its pharmacological properties and clinical potential in epilepsy. Drugs 1993; 46: 409–27 Boyd RA, Bockbrader HN, Turck D, et al. Effect of subject age on the single dose pharmacokinetics of orally administered gabapentin [abstract]. Pharm Res 1990; 7: Suppl. 9: S–215 Klotz U, Avant GR, Hoyumpa A, et al. The effect of age and liver disease on the disposition and elimination of diazepam in adult man. J Clin Invest 1975; 55: 347–59 Perucca E, Grimaldi R, Gatti G, et al. Pharmacokinetics of valproic acid in the elderly. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1984; 17: 665–9 Levy RH, Schmidt D. Utility of free level monitoring of antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 1985; 26(3): 199–205 Scharf S, Christophidis N. Prescribing for the elderly: relevance of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Med J Aust 1993; 158: 395–402 Bach B, Hansen JM, Kampmann JP, et al. Disposition of antipyrine and phenytoin correlated with age and liver volume in man. Clin Pharmacokinet 1981; 6: 389–96 Woodhouse K, Wynne HA. Age-related changes in hepatic function: implications for drug therapy. Drugs Aging 1992; 2: 243–55 Cloyd J. Commonly used antiepileptic drugs: age-related pharmacokinetics. In: Rowan AJ, Ramsey RE, editors. Seizures and epilepsy in the elderly. Boston (MA): Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997: 219–27 Posner J, Holdich T, Crome P. Comparison of lamotrigine pharmacokinetics in young and elderly healthy volunteers. J Pharm Med 1991; 1: 121–8 Leach JP, Brodie MJ. Tiagabine. Lancet 1998; 351: 203–7 Snel S, Jansen JA, Mengel HB, et al. The pharmacokinetics of tiagabine in healthy elderly volunteers and elderly patients with epilepsy. J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 37: 1015–20 Hansten PD, Horn JR, editors. Drug interactions: a clinical perspective and analysis of current developments. Vancouver (WA): Applied Therapeutics Inc., 1993: 331–71 Bahls FH, Ozuna J, Ritchie DE. Interactions between calcium channel blockers and the anticonvulsants carbamazepine and phenytoin. Neurology 1991; 41: 740–2 Maoz E, Grossman E, Thaler M, et al. Carbamazepine: neurotoxic reaction after administration of diltiazem. Arch Intern Med 1992; 36: 615–6 Kutt J. Interactions between anticonvulsants and other commonly prescribed drugs. Epilepsia 1984; 25 Suppl. 2: S118–31 Patsalos PN. Phenobarbitone to gabapentin; a guide to 82 years of anti-epileptic drug pharmacokinetic interactions. Seizure 1994; 3: 163–70 Leppik IE, Wolff D. Drug interactions in the elderly with epilepsy. In: Rowan AJ, Ramsay RE, editors. Seizures and epilepsy in the elderly. Boston (MA): Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997; 291–302 Kutt H. Phenytoin: interactions with other drugs. In: Frey HH, Janz D, editors. Antiepileptic drugs. 2nd ed. New York (NY): Springer-Verlag, 1985: 537–55 Dichter MA, Brodie MJ. New antiepileptic drugs. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 1583–90 Cramer JA, Mattson RH, Prevey ML, et al. How often is medication taken as prescribed? A novel assessment technique. JAMA 1989; 261: 3273–7 Smith D, Mattson R, Cramer J, et al. VA Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group: results of a nationwide Veterans Administration Cooperative Study comparing the efficacy and toxicity of carbamazepine, phenobarbital, phenytoin and primidone. Epilepsia 1987; 28 Suppl.: S50–8 Meador K, Loring D, Huh K, et al. Comparative cognitive effects of anticonvulsants. Neurology 1991; 41: 141–3 Craig I, Tallis R. Impact of valproate and phenytoin on cognitive function in elderly patients; results of a single-blind randomized comparative study. Epilepsia 1994; 35: 381–90 Vauilleumier P, Jallon P. Epilepsy and psychiatric disorders: epidemiological data. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1998; 154(4): 305–17 Blumer D, Montouris G, Herman B. Psychiatric morbidity in seizure patients on a neurodiagnostic monitoring unit. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1995; 7: 445–56 Sander JW, Hart YM, Trimble MR, et al. Vigabatrin and psychosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54: 435–9 Schapel G, Chadwick D. A survey comparing lamotrigine and vigabatrin in everyday clinical practice. Seizure 1996; 5: 267–70 Cramer J, Fisher R, Ben-Menachem E, et al. New antiepileptic drugs: comparison of key clinical trials. Epilepsia 1999; 40: 590–600 Schaff MR, Fawcett J, Zajecka JM. Divalproex sodium in the treatment of refractory affective disorders. J. Clin Psychiatry 1993; 54: 380–4 Post RM, Weiss SR, Chuang DM. Mechanisms of action of anticonvulsants in affective disorders; comparisons with lithium. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1992; 12 Suppl. 1: S23–35 Wannamaker BB, Booker HE.Treatment of provoked seizures. In: Engel J, Pedley TA, editors. Epilepsy: a comprehensive textbook. Philadelphia (PA): Lippincot-Raven, 1997: 1311–6 Oles KS, Gal P, Penry JK. et al. Use of antiepileptic drugs in the elderly population. Public Health Rep 1987; 102: 335–7 Cohen J, Scheuer ML. Antiepileptic drug use in elderly patients with epilepsy [abstract]. Epilepsia 1991; 32 Suppl. 3: 53 Bauer LA, Blouin RA. Age and phenytoin kinetics in adult epileptics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1982; 31: 301–6 Valimaki MJ, Tiihonen M, Latinen K, et al. Bone mineral density measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptimetry in novel markers of bone formation and resorption in patients on antiepileptic drugs. J Bone Miner Res 1994; 9: 631–7 Cummmings SR, Nevitt MC, Browner WS, et al. Risk factors for hip fracture in white women. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 767–74 Donovan PJ, Cline D. Phenytoin administration by constant intravenous infusion: selective rates of administration. Ann Emerg Med 1991; 20: 139–42 Bebin M, Bleck TR. New anticonvulsant drugs. Focus on flunarizine, fosphenytoin, midazolam and stiripentol. Drugs 1994; 48: 153–71 Steidele S, Flugel D, Bauer J, et al. Epilepsy in the very old. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 1997: 65: 237–42 Mac Kichan JJ, Duffner PK, Cohen ME. Salivary concentrations and plasma p binding of carbamazepine and carbamazepine 10, 11-epoxide in epileptic patients. BrJ Clin Pharmacol 1981; 12: 13–37 Sheuer ML, McCullough K. Carbamazepine clearance in the elderly [abstract]. Neurology 1995; 45 Suppl. 4: A360 Lahr MB. Hyponatremia during carbamazepine therapy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1985; 37: 693–6 Kennenbeck G, Bergfeldt L, Vallin H, et al. Electrophysiologic effect and clinical hazards of carbamazepine treatment for neurological disorders in patients with abnormalities of the cardiac conduction system. Am Heart J 1991; 121: 1421–9 Kennenbeck G, Bergfeldt L, Tomson T, et al. Carbamazepine induced bradycardia — a problem in general or only in susceptible patients? A 24-hr long-term electrocardiogram study. Epilepsy Res 1992; 13: 141–5 Steiner I, Birmanns B. Carbamazepine-induced urinary retention in long-standing diabetes mellitus. Neurology 1993; 43: 1855–6 So EL, Lai CV, Pellock J, et al. Safety and efficacy of valproate and carbamazepine in the treatment of complex partial seizures. J Epilepsy 1992; 5: 149–52 Callaghan N, Kenny RA, O’Neill B, et al. A prospective study between carbamazepine, phenytoin and sodium valproate as monotherapy in previously untreated and recently diagnosed patients with epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1985; 48: 639–44 Marson AG, Williamson PR, Hutton JL, et al. Carbamazepine versus valproate monotherapy: an individual patient data meta-analysis on behalf of the epilepsy monotherapy trialists [abstract]. Epilepsia 1998; 39 Suppl. 6: 72 Richens A, Davidson DL, Cartlidge NE, et al. A multicentre comparative trial of sodium valproate and carbamazepine in adult onset epilepsy. Adult EPITEG Collaborative Group. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994; 57: 682–7 Mattson RH, Cramer JA, Collins JF, et al. A comparison of valproate with carbamazepine for the treatment of complex partial seizures and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures in adults. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 765–71 Bauer LA, Davis R, Wilensky A, et al. Valproic acid clearance: unbound fraction and diurnal variation in young and elderly adults. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1985; 37: 697–700 Grisso HA, Kelsey JL, Strom BL, et al. Risk factors for falls as a cause of hip fracture in women. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1326–31 US Gabapentin Study Group No. 5. Gabapentin as add-on therapy in refractory partial epilepsy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study. Neurology 1993; 43: 2292–8 Chadwick DW, Anhut H, Greiner MJ, et al. A double-blind trial of gabapentin monotherapy for newly diagnosed partial seizures. International Gabapentin Monotherapy Study Group 945-77. Neurology 1998; 51: 1282–8 Petroff OA, Rothman DL, Behar KL, et al. The effect of gabapentin on brain gamma-aminobutyric acid in patients with epilepsy. Ann Neurol 1996; 39: 95–9 Brown T, and ia]The Gabapentin Study Groups. Long-term efficacy and toxicity of gabapentin [abstract]. Neurology 1993; 43: A307 Gidal BE, DeCerse J, Brockbrader HR, et. al. Gabapentin bioavailability: effect of dose and frequency of administration in adults patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 1998; 31: 91–9 Cheung H, Kamp K, Harris E. An in vivo investigation of the action of lamotrigine on neuronal voltage-activated sodium channels. Epilepsy Res 1992; 13: 107–12 Brodie MJ, Giorgi L. A multicenter double-blind randomized comparison between lamotrigine and carbamazepine in elderly patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy [abstract]. Epilepsia 1998; 39 Suppl. 6: 72 Goa KL, Ross SR, Chrisp P. Lamotrigine; a review of its pharmacological properties and clinical potential in epilepsy. Drugs 1993; 46: 152–76 Peck AW. Clinical pharmacology of lamotrigine [abstract]. Epilepsia 1991; 32 Suppl. 2: S9 Brodie MJ. Lamotrigine-an update. Can J Neurol Sci 1996; 23(4): S6–9 Russo M, Li LM, O’Donoghue MF, et al. Cutaneous rash with lamotrigine and concomitant valproate therapy [abstract]. Epilepsia 1994; 35 Suppl. 7: 72 Rho JM, Donevan SD, Rogawski MA. Mechanism of action of the anticonvulsant felbamate: opposing effects on N-methyl-D-aspartate and gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptors. Ann Neurol 1994; 35: 229–34 Graves NM.Felbamate. Ann Pharmacother 1993; 27: 1073–81 Palmer KJ, McTavish D. Felbamate. Drugs 1993; 45: 1041–65 Richens A, Banfield CR, Salfi M, et al. Single and multiple dose pharmacokinetics of felbamate in the elderly. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 44: 129–34 Liporace J, Roberts D, Sperling M, et al. Post-marketing felbamate experience [abstract]. Epilepsia 1994; 35: Suppl. 8: 55 Pellock JM, Brodie MJ. Felbamate: 1997 Update. Epilepsia 1997; 38: 1261–4 Brown SD, Wolf HH, Swinyard EA, et al. The novel anticonvulsant topiramate enhances GABA-mediated chloride flux. Epilepsia 1993; 34 Suppl. 2: 122–3 Kuzniecky R, Hetherington H, Ho S, et al. Topiramate increases cerebral GABAin healthy humans. Neurology 1998; 51: 627–9 Gram L. Pharmacokinetics of new antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 1996; 37 Suppl. 6: S12–6 Ben-Menachem E. Potential antiepileptic drugs: topiramate. In: Levy RH, Mattson RH, Meldrum BS, editors. Antiepileptic drugs. 4th ed. New York (NY): Raven Press Ltd, 1995: 1063–9 Doose DR, Larson KL, Natarajan J, et al. Comparative single-dose pharmacokinetics of topiramate in elderly versus young men and women [abstract]. Epilepsia 1998; 39 Suppl. 6: 56 Faught E, Wilder BJ, Ramsey RE, et al. Topiramate placebocontrolled dose ranging trial in refractory partial epilepsy using 200-, 400- and 600-mg daily dosages. Neurology 1996; 46: 1684–90 Richens A, Gustavson LE, McKelvy JF, et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of single-dose tiagabine HCl in epilepsy patients chronically treated with four other antiepileptic drug regimens [abstract]. Epilepsia 1991; 32 Suppl. 3: S12 Sachdeo RC, Leroy RF, Krauss GL, et al. ia]For the Tiagabine Study Group. Tiagabine therapy for complex partial seizures: a dose-frequency study. Arch Neurol 1997; 54: 595–601 Leppik IE. Tiagabine: the safety landscape. Epilepsia 1995; 36 Suppl. 6: S10–13 Petroff OA, BeharKL, Mattson RH, et al. Human brain gamma-aminobutyric acid levels and seizure control following initiation of vigabatrin therapy. J Neurochem 1996; 67: 399–404 Petroff OA, Rothman DL, Behar KL, et al. Human brain GABA levels rise rapidly after initiation of vigabatrin therapy. Neurology 1996; 47: 1567–71 Ben-Menachem E. Vigabatrin. Epilepsia 1995; 36 Suppl. 2: S95–104 Haegele KD, Huebert ND, Ebel M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of vigabatrin: implications of creatinine clearance. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1988; 44: 558–65 French JA, Mosier M, Walker S, et al. Vigabatrin Protocol 024 Investigative Cohort. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of Vigabatrin 3 g/day in patients with uncontrolled complex partial seizures. Neurology 1996; 46: 54–61 Krauss GL, Johnson MA, Miller NR. Vigabatrin-associated retinal cone system dysfunction. Electroretinogram and ophthalmologic findings. Neurology 1998; 50: 614–8 Oxcarbazepine [review]. Lancet 1989; II (8656): 196-8 Bill PA, Vigonius U, Pohlmann JH, et al. A double-blind controlled clinical trial of oxcarbazepine versus phenytoin in adults with previously untreated epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 1997; 27: 195–204 vanHeiningen PNM, Eve MD, Oosterhuis B, et al. The influence of age on the pharmacokinetics of the antiepileptic agent oxcarbazepine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1991; 50: 410–9 Dam M, Ekberg R, Loyning Y, et al. A double-blind study comparing oxcarbazepine and carbamazepine in patients with newly diagnosed, previously untreated epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 1989; 3: 70–6 Elwers RD, Binnie CD. Clinical pharmacokinetics of newer antiepileptic drugs/lamotrigine, vigabatrin, gabapentin and oxcarbazepine. Clin Pharmacokinet 1996; 30: 403–15 Klosterkov JP, Saano V, Haring P, et al. Possible interaction between oxcarbazepine and an oral contraceptive. Epilepsia 1992; 33: 1149–52 Sonnen AEH. Oxcarbazepine and oral contraceptive [abstract]. Acta Neurol Scand 1990; 82 Suppl. 133: 37 VanAmelsvoort T, Bakshi R, Devaux CB, et al. Hyponatremia associated with carbamazepine and oxcarbazepine therapy: a review. Epilepsia 1994; 35: 181–8 Nielsen OA, Johannessen AC, Bardrum B. Oxcarbazepine-induced hyponatremia, a cross-sectional study. Epilepsy Res 1988; 2: 269–71 Pendlebury SD, Moses DK, Eadie MJ. Hyponatremia during oxcarbazepine therapy. Hum Toxicol 1989; 8: 337–44 Dam M, Ostergaard LH. Other antiepileptic drugs.Oxcarbazepine. In: Levy RH, Mattson RH, Meldrum BS, editors. Antiepileptic drugs. 4th ed. New York (NY): Raven Press, 1995: 987–95 Marson AG, Kadir ZA, Chadwick DW. New antiepileptic drugs: a systematic review of their efficacy and tolerability. BMJ 1996; 313: 1169–74 Brodie MJ, Richens A, Yeun AW. Double-blind comparison of lamotrigine and carbamazepine in newly diagnosed epilepsy: UK Lamotrigine/Carbamazepine Monotherapy Trial Group. Lancet 1995; 345: 476–9 Kalviainen R, Aikia M, Saukkonen AM. Vigabatrin vs. carbamazepine monotherapy in patients with newly diagnosed epilepsy: a randomized, controlled study. Arch Neurol 1995; 52: 989–96 Mattson RH, Cramer JA, Collins JF, et al. Connective tissue changes, hypersensitivity rash and blood laboratory test changes associated with antiepileptic drug therapy. Ann Neurol 1986; 20: 119–20 Pellock JM, Willmore LJ. A rational guide to routine blood monitoring in patients receiving antiepileptic drugs. Neurology 1991; 41: 961–4