The Potential for Plants to Trap Emissions from Farms with Laying Hens: 2. Ammonia and Dust

Fangmeier, 1994, Effects of atmospheric ammonia on vegetation—A review, Environ. Pollut., 86, 43, 10.1016/0269-7491(94)90008-6 Van der Eeerden, 1998, Risk of damage to crops in the direct neighborhood of ammonia sources, Environ. Pollut., 102, 49, 10.1016/S0269-7491(98)80014-6 Sutton, 2002, Introduction: Fluxes and impacts of atmospheric ammonia on national, landscape, and farm scales, Environ. Pollut., 119, 7, 10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00145-2 NRC, 2003 United State Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. National Emission Inventory—Ammonia Emission from Animal Agricultural Operations: Revised Draft Report, April 2005. http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/net/2002inventory.html Accessed Oct. 2006. Elwinger, 1996, Effect of dietary protein content, litter, and drinker type on ammonia emission from broiler houses, J. Agric. Res., 64, 197 Ferguson, 1998, The effect of dietary protein and phosphorus on ammonia concentration and litter composition in broilers, Poult. Sci., 77, 1085, 10.1093/ps/77.8.1085 Jones, 2005, Environmental and management factors affecting the welfare of chickens on commercial farms in the United Kingdom and Denmark stocked at five densities, Poult. Sci., 84, 1155, 10.1093/ps/84.8.1155 Kim, 2005, Effects of dietary zinc supplementation on the hen performance, ammonia volatilization, and nitrogen retention in manure, J. Environ. Sci. Health B, 40, 675, 10.1081/PFC-200061598 Moritz, 2005, Effect of egg yolk antibodies on broiler performance, Poult. Sci., 85, 178 Parker, 2005, Feed additives, and Eimeria spp. vaccination and/or infection over microbial uricase activity to reduce ammonia volatilization from broiler manure, Poult. Sci., 85, 204 Patterson, 2005, Management strategies to reduce air emissions: Emphasis—Dust and ammonia, J. Appl. Poult. Res., 14, 638, 10.1093/japr/14.3.638 Tyndall, 2000 Malone, G., G. Van Wicklen, S. Collier, and D. Hansen. 2006. Efficacy of vegetative environmental buffers to capture emissions from tunnel ventilated poultry houses. Pages 875–878 in Proc. Workshop on Agric. Air Qual.: State of the Science. Potomac, MD. Dept. Commun. Serv., North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh. Yin, 1998, Effects of gaseous ammonia on intracellular pH values in leaves of C3- and C4-plants, Atmos. Environ., 32, 539, 10.1016/S1352-2310(97)00165-9 Patterson, 2008, Vegetative buffers for fan emissions from poultry farms: 1. Temperature and foliar nitrogen, J. Environ. Sci. Health B, 43, 199, 10.1080/03601230801890179 Patterson, 2008, The potential for plants to trap emissions from farms with laying hens: 1, Ammonia. J. Appl. Poult. Res., 17, 54, 10.3382/japr.2007-00014 Reynolds, 1998, Field comparison of methods for evaluation of vapor/particle phase distribution of ammonia in livestock buildings, J. Agric. Saf. Health, 4, 81, 10.13031/2013.15351 Siefert, 2004, Characterization of atmospheric ammonia emissions from a commercial chicken house on the Delmarva Peninsula, Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 2769, 10.1021/es0345874 Borrelli, 1989, Wind barriers: A reevaluation of height, spacing, and porosity, Trans. ASAE, 32, 2023, 10.13031/2013.31257 Raupach, 2001, The entrapment of particles by windbreaks, Atmos. Environ., 35, 3373, 10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00139-X Leuty, T. 2004. Using shelterbelts to reduce odors associated with livestock production barns. Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs. Ontario, CA. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/info_odours.htm Accessed Oct. 2006. The air speed was measured with a no. 451112 thermoanemometer, Extech Instruments, Waltham, MA. Cole-Parmer Instrument Co., Vernon Hills, IL. Frey Bros., Reading, PA. No. 90326, Scotts-Sierra Horticultural Products Co., Marysville, OH. Model 1412, Innova AirTech Instruments, Balle-rup, Denmark. An internally Teflon-coated 31-cm tubing equipped with a 47-mm polycarbonate cassette (no. 1119, Pall Gelman Laboratory, Ann Arbor, MI) and a 20- to 25-μm filter paper (no. 41, Whatman International Ltd., Maidstone, UK) on its air inlet end from each location was connected to a manifold and a vacuum pump (VFA-24-BV, Dwyer Instruments Inc., Michigan City, IN). The pump ran at the rate of 10 L/min. All the air sample lines were continuously purged throughout the pump outlet ports, venting via 0.31-cm tubing to a location 18 m away from the fans, except when a line was connected to the NH3 detector unit for NH3 reading. No. 3D, Gastec Corp., Fukaya, Japan. Hobo Pro Series (H08-032-08), Onset Computer, Bourne, MA. Model RJ 1412 HPL Type 4X, Robroy Industries, Belding, MI. Model AFC-123, BGI Incorporated, Waltham, MA. A 37-mm clear styrene cassette (A-003750-3) equipped with a 37-mm (diameter) by 0.8-μm (pore size) mixed cellulose ester filter with support pad (M-083700P; SKC Omega Specialty Division, Houston, TX) was connected via 0.64-cm polyvinyl chloride tubing to the pump. The cassette was loosened from its 3 parts with a cassette opener, and along with the filter and the support pad, they were placed in a desiccator for 30 min. Next, the support pad was fitted onto the bottom part (indicated by a blue plug on the bottom hole) of the cassette. The filter was passed over a static master (to reduce static charge) with a self-closing forceps before being weighed on a micro balance. This was done 3 times to get an average final weight. The filter was then placed on the support pad and covered with the middle part and the top part of the cassette. A red plug was used to cap the nose hole of the cassette. Room temperature and RH were recorded during the weighing time before and after dust measurement. On the site of dust measurement, the blue cap was unplugged from the cassette, connected to the air pump via 0.64-cm tubing, and taped to avoid air leakage. The red cap was unplugged and the cassette was connected to a flow meter to set the pump rate at 2.2 L/min. After disconnecting the flow meter from the nose hole of the cassette, the pump and the cassette were hung on a sheltered metal post at a height of 1.5 m to run for 8 h. Ten minutes after running the pump, poultry dust (scraped from the layer house floor) was flung and released from each fan inlet to increase the dust concentration discharge. Poultry dust was released hourly (1 kg/h per fan for 8 h). Before turning off the pump, the nose hole of the cassette was connected with a flow meter to ensure that the pump was running at approximately the same rate as when it was started. The cassette was then capped on the top, disconnected from the pump, capped on the bottom, and placed in a desiccator before being weighed. The weighing protocol was the same as that described previously when weighing the filter. The difference in weight of the filter before and after measurement and divided by the hours of measurement (8) was the weight of the total dust per hour. Foliage samples were placed in flasks, filtered (0.45-μm pore diameter) water was used to rinse the collection bottles, and the rinse water was added to the corresponding flask. A 0.02% hepamethyltrisiloxane surfactant solution was created by adding 0.095 mL of the surfactant to each flask and bringing the flask to 500 mL with filtered water. The stoppered flasks were placed in a refrigerator and the samples were allowed to soak for 24 h. The flasks were then placed on a rotational shaker at 200 rpm for 2 h. Each sample was then removed from the flask and rinsed over a funnel with filtered water. The samples were sprayed vigorously on all sides, allowing the water to collect in the flasks. The resulting solutions were then successively filtered through 3 preweighed, size-selective filters with 1,000-, 25-, and 0.45-μm pore sizes. The filters were dried for 1 h at 105°C, cooled for 15 min, and then reweighed on a digital microbalance. Leaf area was determined for each vegetative sample. For cylindrical samples, the plant parts were scanned to create digital images. These images were analyzed by using Rootedge software to obtain an area measurement for each sample. For noncylindrical samples, a LiCor (LI-3100C) meter was used to obtain leaf area measurements. Results are reported as the weight of PM captured on each filter per surface area of the vegetative sample (mg/cm2). Particulate matter filtered from 0.45-μm pore filters was designated as PM2.5, the PM with aerodynamic equivalent diameters of less than or equal to 2.5 μm. Particulate matter filtered from 25-μm pore filters was designated as PM10, with aerodynamic equivalent diameters of less than or equal to 10 μm. Particulate matter filtered from 1,000-μm pore filters was designated as PM>10, again with PM aerodynamic equivalent diameters of greater than 10 μm. Total PM was counted as the sum of the 3 PM categories. SAS Institute, 2003 Webb, 2002, Background to the problem of ammonia in the UK., 6 McGinn, 2003, Atmospheric pollutants and trace gases, J. Environ. Qual., 32, 1173, 10.2134/jeq2003.1173 Pitcairn, 1998, The relationship between nitrogen deposition, species composition, and foliar nitrogen concentrations in woodland flora in the vicinity of livestock farms, Environ. Pollut., 102, 41, 10.1016/S0269-7491(98)80013-4 Pitcairn, 2002, Defining the special impacts of poultry farm ammonia emissions on species composition of adjacent woodland groundflora using Ellen-berg Nitrogen Index, nitrous oxide, and nitric oxide emissions and foliar nitrogen as marker variable, Environ. Pollut., 119, 9, 10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00148-8 Hao, 2006, Sorption of atmospheric ammonia by soil and perennial grass downwind from two large cattle feedlots, J. Environ. Qual., 35, 1960, 10.2134/jeq2005.0308 Adrizal Patterson, 2006, Growth and foliar nitrogen status of four plant species exposed to atmospheric ammonia, J. Environ. Sci. Health B, 41, 1001, 10.1080/03601230600808703 Adrizal, P. H. Patterson, R. M. Hulet, and R. M. Bates. 2006. Foliar nitrogen status and growth of plants exposed to atmospheric ammonia (NH3). Pages 442–452 in Proc. Workshop on Agric. Air Qual.: State of the Science. Potomac, MD. Dept. Commun. Serv., North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh. Krupa, 2003, Effects of atmospheric ammonia (NH3) on terrestrial vegetation: A review, Environ. Pollut., 124, 179, 10.1016/S0269-7491(02)00434-7 Lin, 2006, Influence of windbreaks on livestock odour dispersion plume in the field, Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 116, 263, 10.1016/j.agee.2006.02.014 Patterson, 2008, Vegetative buffers for fan emissions from poultry farms: 2. Ammonia, dust, and foliar nitrogen, J. Environ. Sci. Health B, 43, 96, 10.1080/03601230801890179