The Development of Ethnic-Racial Identity Process and Its Relation to Civic Beliefs among Latinx and Black American Adolescents

Aldana, A., & Byrd, C. M. (2015). School ethnic-racial socialization: learning about race and ethnicity among African American students. The Urban Review, 47(3), 563–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-014-0319-0.

Anyiwo, N., Bañales, J., Rowley, S. J., Watkins, D. C., & Richards‐Schuster, K. (2018). Sociocultural influences on the sociopolitical development of African American youth. Child Development Perspectives, 12(3), 165–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12276.

Bañales, J., Mathews, C. J., Hayat, N., Anyiwo, N., & Diemer, M. A. (2019). Latinx and Black American young adults’ civic/political action pathways. Cultural Diversity and Minority Ethnic Psychology, 26(2), 176–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000271.

Camacho, T., Medina, M., Rivas-Drake, D., & Jagers, R. (2018). School climate and ethnic-racial identity in school: a longitudinal examination of reciprocal associations. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 28(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2338.

Carter, D. J. (2008). Achievement as resistance: the development of a critical race achievement ideology among black achievers. Harvard Educational Review, 78(3), 466–497. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.78.3.83138829847hw844.

Chan, W. Y., & Latzman, R. D. (2015). Racial discrimination, multiple group identities, and civic beliefs among immigrant adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(4), 527–532. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000021.

Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1995). Constructing validity: basic issues in objective scale development. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 309–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.309.

DeVellis, R. (2003). Scale development: theory and applications. New York, NY: Sage Publications.

Erikson, E. H., & Funkenstein, D. H. (1959). Late adolescence. The student and mental health. Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press. Erikson.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis (No. 7). New York, NY: WW Norton & Company.

Flanagan, C. A. (2020). Civic engagement and community consciousness. In S. Hupp, J. D. Jewell (Eds.), The encyclopedia of child and adolescent development, Vol. 2. (pp. 1–4). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Flanagan, C. A., Cumsille, P., Gill, S., & Gallay, L. S. (2007). School and community climates and civic commitments: patterns for ethnic minority and majority students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 421–431. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.421.

Flanagan, C. A., Syvertsen, A. K., Gill, S., Gallay, L. S., & Cumsille, P. (2009). Ethnic awareness, prejudice, and civic commitments in four ethnic groups of American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(4), 500–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9394-z.

Fuligni, A. J. (2019). The need to contribute during adolescence. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(3), 331–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618805437.

Ginwright, S. A. (2007). Black youth activism and the role of critical social capital in Black community organizations. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(3), 403–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764207306068.

Guillaume, C., Jagers, R., & Rivas-Drake, D. (2015). Middle school as a developmental niche for civic engagement. American Journal of Community Psychology, 56(3–4), 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-015-9759-2.

Harris, J., & Kruger, A. C. (2019). Exploring the influence of racial-ethnic and gender identity on the prosocial behaviors of African American adolescent males. Youth and Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x19854936.

Hope, E. C., Gugwor, R., Riddick, K. N., & Pender, K. N. (2019). Engaged against the machine: institutional and cultural racial discrimination and racial identity as predictors of activism orientation among Black youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 63(1–2), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12303.

Hope, E. C., & Spencer, M. B. (2017). Civic engagement as an adaptive coping response to conditions of inequality: an application of phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST). In Handbook on positive development of minority children and youth (pp. 421–435). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43645-6_25

Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.

Jagers, R. J., Lozada, F. T., Rivas-Drake, D., & Guillaume, C. (2017). Classroom and school predictors of civic engagement among Black and Latino middle school youth. Child Development, 88(4), 1125–1138. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12871.

Jagers, R., Rivas-Drake, D., & Williams, B. (2019). Transformative social and emotional learning (SEL): toward SEL in the service of equity and excellence. Educational Psychologist, 54(3), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2019.1623032.

Jensen, L. A. (2008). Immigrants’ cultural identities as sources of civic engagement. Applied Developmental Science, 12(2), 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888690801997069.

Jensen, L. A. (2010). Immigrant youth in the United States: Coming of age among diverse civic cultures. In L.R. Sherrod, J. Torney-Purta, C.A. Flanagan, (Eds), Handbook of research and policy on civic engagement in youth (pp. 425–443). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.

Lerner, R. M., Wang, J., Champine, R. B., Warren, D. J. A., & Erickson, K. (2014). Development of civic engagement: Theoretical and methodological issues. International. Journal of Developmental Sciences, 8(3−4), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.3233/DEV-14130.

Mathews, C. J., Medina, M., Bañales, J., Pinetta, B. J., Marchand, A. D., Agi, A. C., Miller, S. M., Hoffman, A. J., Diemer, M. A. & Rivas-Drake, D. (2019). Mapping the intersections of adolescents’ ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness. Adolescent Research Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00122-0.

Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2017). Mplus user’s guide eight edition. Muthén & Muthén, Los Angeles, CA.

Neblett, E. W., Rivas-Drake, D., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2012). The promise of racial and ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic minority youth development. Child Development. Perspectives, 6(3), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00239.x.

Pahl, K., & Way, N. (2006). Longitudinal trajectories of ethnic identity among urban Black and Latino adolescents. Child Development, 77(5), 1403–1415. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00943.x.

Quintana, S. M. (2008). Racial perspective taking ability: developmental, theoretical, and empirical trends. In S. M. Quintana & C. McKown (Eds), Handbook of race, racism, and the developing child. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.

Rivas-Drake, D., Seaton, E. K., Markstrom, C., Quintana, S., Syed, M., & Lee, R. M., Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity in adolescence: Implications for psychosocial, academic, and health outcomes. Child Development, 85(1), 40–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12200.

Rivas-Drake, D. & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2019). Below the surface: talking with teens about race, ethnicity, and identity. Princeton, NJ, US: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691184388.

Seider, S., Clark, S., Graves, D., Kelly, L. L., Soutter, M., El-Amin, A., & Jennett, P. (2019). Black and Latinx adolescents’ developing beliefs about poverty and associations with their awareness of racism. Developmental Psychology, 55(1), 509–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000585.

Spencer, M. B. (2011). American identity: Impact of youths’ differential experiences in society on their attachment to American ideals. Applied Developmental Science, 15(2), 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2011.560806.

Streit, C., Carlo, G., Killoren, S. E., & Alfaro, E. C. (2018). Family members’ relationship qualities and prosocial behaviors in U.S. Mexican young adults: the roles of familism and ethnic identity resolution. Journal of Family Issues, 39(4), 1056–1084. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x16686134.

Syed, M., Walker, L. H. M., Lee, R. M., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Schwartz, S. J., & Huynh, Q.-L. (2013). A two-factor model of ethnic identity exploration: Implications for identity coherence and well-being. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(2), 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030564.

Syvertsen, A. K., Wray-Lake, L., & Metzger, A. (2015). Youth civic and character measures toolkit. Search Institute.

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–48). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Torney-Purta, J., & Amadeo, J. A. (2011). Participatory niches for emergent citizenship in early adolescence: an international perspective. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 633(1), 180–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716210384220.

Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Douglass, S., Updegraff, K. A., & Marsiglia, F. F. (2018). A small-scale randomized efficacy trial of the identity project: promoting adolescents’ ethnic–racial identity exploration and resolution. Child Development, 89(3), 862–870. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12755.

Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Gonzales-Backen, M. A., & Guimond, A. B. (2009). Latino adolescents’ ethnic identity: Is there a developmental progression and does growth in ethnic identity predict growth in self-esteem? Child Development, 80(2), 391–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01267.x.

Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, Jr, W. E., Rivas‐Drake, D., & Schwartz, S. J., Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: an integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12196.

Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Updegraff, K. A., Jahromi, L. B., & Zeiders, K. H. (2015). Trajectories of ethnic-racial identity and autonomy among Mexican-origin adolescent mothers in the United States. Child Development, 86(6), 2034–2050. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12444.

Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Yazedjian, A., & Bámaca-Gómez, M. (2004). Developing the ethnic identity scale using Eriksonian and social identity perspectives. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 4(1), 9–38. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532706XID0401_2.

Voight, A., & Torney-Purta, J. (2013). A typology of youth civic engagement in urban middle schools. Applied Developmental Science, 17(4), 198–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2013.836041.

Watts, R. J., Williams, N. C., & Jagers, R. J. (2003). Sociopolitical development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31(1–2), 185–194. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023091024140.

White-Johnson, R. L. (2012). Prosocial involvement among African American young adults: considering racial discrimination and racial identity. Journal of Black Psychology, 38(3), 313–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798411420429.

Youniss, J., & Yates, M. (1997). Community service and social responsibility in youth. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.