Systematic assessment of training-induced changes in corticospinal output to hand using frameless stereotaxic transcranial magnetic stimulation

Teskey, G., Monfils, M., VandenBerg, P. & Kleim, J. Motor map expansion following repeated cortical and limbic seizures is related to synaptic potentiation. Cereb. Cortex 12, 98–105 (2002).

Monfils, M.H., VandenBerg, P.M., Kleim, J.A. & Teskey, G.C. Long-term potentiation induces expanded movement representations and dendritic hypertrophy in layer V of rat sensorimotor neocortex. Cereb. Cortex 14, 586–593 (2004).

Pascual-Leone, A. et al. Study and modulation of human cortical excitability with transcranial magnetic stimulation. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. 15, 333–343 (1998).

Peinemann, A. et al. Long-lasting increase in corticospinal excitability after 1800 pulses of subthreshold 5 Hz repetitive TMS to the primary motor cortex. Clin. Neurophysiol. 115, 1519–1526 (2004).

Cramer, S. et al. Use of functional MRI to guide decisions in a clinical stroke trial. Stroke 36, e50–e52 (2005).

Stefan, K., Kunesch, E., Cohen, L.G., Benecke, R. & Classen, J. Induction of plasticity in the human motor cortex by paired associative stimulation. Brain 123 (Pt 3), 572–584 (2000).

Jacobs, K.M. & Donoghue, J.P. Reshaping the cortical motor map by unmasking latent intracortical connections. Science 251, 944–947 (1991).

Reis, J. et al. Modulation of human motor cortex excitability by single doses of amantadine. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 2758–2766 (2006).

Charlton, C.S., Ridding, M.C., Thompson, P.D. & Miles, T.S. Prolonged peripheral nerve stimulation induces persistent changes in excitability of human motor cortex. J. Neurol. Sci. 208, 79–85 (2003).

Keller, A., Weintraub, N.D. & Miyashita, E. Tactile experience determines the organization of movement representations in rat motor cortex. Neuroreport 7, 2373–2378 (1996).

Brasil-Neto, J. et al. Rapid modulation of human cortical motor outputs following ischaemic nerve block. Brain 116 (Pt 3), 511–525 (1993).

Kleim, J., Barbay, S. & Nudo, R.J. Functional reorganization of the rat motor cortex following motor skill learning. J. Neurophysiol. 80, 3321–3325 (1998).

Jensen, J.L., Marstrand, P.C. & Nielsen, J.B. Motor skill training and strength training are associated with different plastic changes in the central nervous system. J. Appl. Physiol. 99, 1558–1568 (2005).

Kleim, J.A. et al. BDNF val66met polymorphism is associated with modified experience-dependent plasticity in human motor cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 9, 735–737 (2006).

Pascual-Leone, A. et al. Modulation of muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills. J. Neurophysiol. 74, 1037–1045 (1995).

Monfils, M.H., Plautz, E.J. & Kleim, J.A. In search of the motor engram: motor map plasticity as a mechanism for encoding motor experience. Neuroscientist 11, 471–483 (2005).

Classen, J., Liepert, J., Wise, S.P., Hallett, M. & Cohen, L.G. Rapid plasticity of human cortical movement representation induced by practice. J. Neurophysiol. 79, 1117–1123 (1998).

Meintzschel, F. & Ziemann, U. Modification of practice-dependent plasticity in human motor cortex by neuromodulators. Cereb. Cortex 16, 1106–1115 (2006).

Kleim, J.A. et al. Cortical synaptogenesis and motor map reorganization occur during late, but not early, phase of motor skill learning. J. Neurosci. 24, 628–633 (2004).

Nudo, R.J., Milliken, G.W., Jenkins, W.M. & Merzenich, M.M. Use-dependent alterations of movement representations in primary motor cortex of adult squirrel monkeys. J. Neurosci. 16, 785–807 (1996).

Paus, T. & Wolforth, M. Transcranial magnetic stimulation during PET: reaching and verifying the target site. Hum. Brain Mapp. 6, 399–402 (1998).

Gugino, L.D. et al. Transcranial magnetic stimulation coregistered with MRI: a comparison of a guided versus blind stimulation technique and its effect on evoked compound muscle action potentials. Clin. Neurophysiol. 112, 1781–1792 (2001).

Neggers, S.F. et al. A stereotactic method for image-guided transcranial magnetic stimulation validated with fMRI and motor-evoked potentials. Neuroimage 21, 1805–1817 (2004).

Kleim, J.A., Jones, T.A. & Schallert, T. Motor enrichment and the induction of plasticity before or after brain injury. Neurochem. Res. 28, 1757–1769 (2003).

Cramer, S. Clinical issues in animal models of stroke and rehabilitation. ILAR J. 44, 83–84 (2003).

Nudo, R.J. Functional and structural plasticity in motor cortex: implications for stroke recovery. Phys. Med. Rehabil. Clin. N. Am. 14 (1 Suppl) S57–S76 (2003).

Oldfield, R.C. The assessment and analysis of handedness: the Edinburgh Inventory. Neuropsychologia 9, 97–113 (1971).

Pascual-Leone, A., Davey, N.J., Rothwell, J., Wassermann, E.M. & Basant, K. Handbook of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (Arnold, New York, 2002).

Keel, J.C., Smith, M.J. & Wassermann, E.M. A safety screening questionnaire for transcranial magnetic stimulation. Clin. Neurophysiol. 112, 720 (2001).

Wassermann, E.M. Risk and safety of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: report and suggested guidelines from the International Workshop on the Safety of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, June 5–7, 1996. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 108, 1–16 (1998).

Rothwell, J.C. et al. Magnetic stimulation: motor evoked potentials. The International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. Suppl. 52, 97–103 (1999).

Tranulis, C. et al. Motor threshold in transcranial magnetic stimulation: comparison of three estimation methods. Neurophysiol. Clin. 36, 1–7 (2006).

Schutter, D.J. & van Honk, J. A standardized motor threshold estimation procedure for transcranial magnetic stimulation research. J. ECT 22, 176–178 (2006).

Claus, D., Murray, N.M., Spitzer, A. & Flugel, D. The influence of stimulus type on the magnetic excitation of nerve structures. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 75, 342–349 (1990).

Maccabee, P.J. et al. Influence of pulse sequence, polarity and amplitude on magnetic stimulation of human and porcine peripheral nerve. J. Physiol. 513 (Pt 2), 571–585 (1998).

Ono, M., Kubik, S. & Abernathey, C. Atlas of the Cerebral Sulci (G. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 1990).

Brasil-Neto, J.P., McShane, L.M., Fuhr, P., Hallett, M. & Cohen, L.G. Topographic mapping of the human motor cortex with magnetic stimulation: factors affecting accuracy and reproducibility. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 85, 9–16 (1992).

Perotto, A. Anatomical Guide for the Electromyographer. The Limbs and Trunk (Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, 1994).

Talleli, P., Greenwood, R.J. & Rothwell, J.C. Arm function after stroke: neurophysiological correlates and recovery mechanisms assessed by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Clin. Neurophysiol. 117, 1641–1659 (2006).

Wolf, S.L. et al. Intra-subject reliability of parameters contributing to maps generated by transcranial magnetic stimulation in able-bodied adults. Clin. Neurophysiol. 115, 1740–1747 (2004).

Yousry, T. et al. Localization of the motor hand area to a knob on the precentral gyrus. A new landmark. Brain 120, 141–157 (1997).

Boroojerdi, B. et al. Localization of the motor hand area using transcranial magnetic stimulation and functional magnetic resonance imaging. Clin. Neurophysiol. 110, 699–704 (1999).

Rosenkranz, K. & Rothwell, J.C. Differential effect of muscle vibration on intracortical inhibitory circuits in humans. J. Physiol. 551, 649–660 (2003).

Wassermann, E.M. Variation in the response to transcranial magnetic brain stimulation in the general population. Clin. Neurophysiol. 113, 1165–1171 (2002).

Rossini, P.M. et al. Non-invasive electrical and magnetic stimulation of the brain, spinal cord and roots: basic principles and procedures for routine clinical application. Report of an IFCN committee. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 91, 79–92 (1994).

Penfield, W. & Boldrey, E. Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man as studied by electrical stimulation. Brain 60, 389–443 (1937).

Cramer, S.C. & Crafton, K.R. Somatotopy and movement representation sites following cortical stroke. Exp. Brain Res. 168, 25–32 (2006).

Helmich, R.C., Baumer, T., Siebner, H.R., Bloem, B.R. & Munchau, A. Hemispheric asymmetry and somatotopy of afferent inhibition in healthy humans. Exp. Brain Res. 167, 211–219 (2005).

Devanne, H., Lavoie, B.A. & Capaday, C. Input-output properties and gain changes in the human corticospinal pathway. Exp. Brain Res. 114, 329–338 (1997).