Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long-term threat

Environmental Research - Tập 108 Số 2 - Trang 131-139 - 2008
Charles J. Moore1
1Algalita Marine Research Foundation, 148 N. Marina Drive, Long Beach, CA 90803, USA

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Algalita Marine Research Foundation, 2006. Assess and reduce sources of plastic and trash in urban and coastal waters. Report to the State of California Water Resources Control Board. Algalita Marine Research Foundation, Long Beach, CA.

Al-Sheaibi, F., 2002. Address to 5th Dubai Plast Pro Congress, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, April 15, 2002. Saudi Basic Industries Polymers Group.

Andrady, A.L., 2000. Plastics and their impacts in the marine environment. In: Proceedings of the International Marine Debris Conference on Derelict Fishing Gear and the Ocean Environment, 6–11 August 2000, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Andrady, 2003, Common plastics materials, 99

Andrady, A.L., 2005. Plastics in marine environment. A technical perspective. In: Proceedings of the Plastic Debris Rivers to Sea Conference, 2005. Algalita Marine Research Foundation, Long Beach, CA.

Auman, 1997, Plastic ingestion by Laysan Albatross chicks on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, in 1994 and 1995, 239

Barnes, 2002, Invasions by marine life on plastic debris, Nature, 416, 808, 10.1038/416808a

Barnes, 2005, Remote islands reveal rapid rise of southern hemisphere, sea debris, Sci. World, 5, 915, 10.1100/tsw.2005.120

Barreiros, 2001, Plastic ingestion by a leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea from the Azores (NE Atlantic), Mar. Pollut. Bull., 42, 1196, 10.1016/S0025-326X(01)00215-6

2000

Beck, R.W., 2005. 2004 National post-consumer plastics recycling report. American Plastics Council, Division of American Chemistry Council, Arlington, VI, USA.

Bern, 1990, Size-related discrimination of nutritive and inert particles by freshwater zooplankton, J. Plank. Res., 12, 1059, 10.1093/plankt/12.5.1059

Brandrup, 2003, Polymers, polymer recycling, and sustainability, 523

California Integrated Waste Management Board, 2003. Plastics white paper: optimizing plastics use, recycling, and disposal in California. Publications Clearinghouse, (916) 341-6306.

California Ocean Protection Council, 2007. Resolution of the California Ocean Protection Council on Reducing and Preventing Marine Debris, Sacramento, CA, February 8.

California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Los Angeles Region. Total maximum daily load for trash in the Los Angeles River Watershed, Los Angeles, CA.

Carpenter, 1972, Polystyrene particles in coastal waters, Science, 178, 491, 10.1126/science.178.4062.749

Colton, 1974, Plastic particles in surface waters of the Northwestern Atlantic, Science, 9 August, 491, 10.1126/science.185.4150.491

Copello, 2003, Marine debris ingestion by Southern Giant Petrels and its potential relationships with fisheries in the Southern Atlantic Ocean, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 46, 1513, 10.1016/S0025-326X(03)00312-6

Day, R.H., Shaw, D.G., Ignell, S.E., 1990. The quantitative distribution and characteristics of neuston plastic in the North Pacific Ocean. 1985–1988. In: Shomura, R.S., Godfrey, M.L. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Marine Debris, 2–7 April, 1989, Honolulu, Hawaii. NOAA Technical Memo. NMFS, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-154.

De Metrio, 2003, Evidence of a high percentage of intersex in the Mediterranean swordfish (Xiphias gladius L.), Mar. Pollut. Bull., 46, 358, 10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00233-3

Derraik, 2002, The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 44, 842, 10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00220-5

Eriksson, 2003, Origins and biological accumulation of small plastic particles in fur seals from Macquarie Island, AMBIO: A J. Hum. Environ., 32, 380, 10.1579/0044-7447-32.6.380

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), Canada, 1991. In: Smith, A. (Ed.), Report of the Expert Consultation on the Marking of Fishing Gear, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, 14–19 July, 1991.

Foley, D., Veenstra, T., 2006. Characterizing and surveying oceanic sources and sinks of marine debris. In: Proceedings of the Southern California Academy of Sciences Annual Meeting, 2006, recorded remarks.

Goldberg, 1997, Plasticizing the seafloor: an overview, Environ. Technol., 18, 195, 10.1080/09593331808616527

Gordon, 2006

Gregory, 1977, Plastic pellets on New Zealand beaches, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 8, 82, 10.1016/0025-326X(77)90193-X

Gregory, 1978, Accumulation and distribution of virgin plastic granules on New Zealand beaches, N. Z. J. Mar. Freshwater Res., 12, 399, 10.1080/00288330.1978.9515768

Gregory, 1983, Virgin plastic granules on some beaches of eastern Canada and Bermuda, Mar. Environ. Res., 10, 73, 10.1016/0141-1136(83)90011-9

Gregory, 1991, The hazards of persistent marine pollution: drift plastics and conservation islands, J. R. Soc. N. Z., 21, 83, 10.1080/03036758.1991.10431398

Gregory, 1996, Plastic ‘scrubbers’ in hand cleansers: a further (and minor) source for marine pollution identified, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 32, 867, 10.1016/S0025-326X(96)00047-1

Gregory, 1999, Plastics and South Pacific island shores: environmental implications, Ocean Coastal Manage., 42, 603, 10.1016/S0964-5691(99)00036-8

Gregory, 2003, Plastics in the marine environment, 379

Henry, W., 2004. Plastic and seabirds, regional patterns in plastic accumulation in Laysan Albatrosses. Report to the Will J. Reid Foundation, Algalita Marine Research Foundation, Long Beach, CA.

Ingraham Jr., W.J., Ebbesmeyer, C.C., 2000. Surface current concentration of floating marine debris in the North Pacific Ocean: 12-year OSCURS Model Experiment. In: McIntosh, N., Simonds, K., Donohue, M., Brammer, C., Mason, S., Carbajal, S. (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Marine Debris Conference on Derelict Fishing Gear and the Ocean Environment, Honolulu, HI, pp. 91–115.

Kanehiro, 1995, Marine litter composition and distribution on the seabed of Tokyo Bay, Fish. Eng., 31, 195

Katsanevakis, 2007, Effect of marine litter on the benthic megafauna of coastal soft bottoms: a manipulative field experiment, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 54, 771, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.12.016

Koblentz-Mishke, 1970, Plankton primary production of the world ocean, 183

Lattin, 2004, A comparison of neustonic plastic and zooplankton at 3 different depths near the southern California shore, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 49, 291, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.01.020

Lutcavage, 1997, The biology of sea turtles

Mato, 2001, Plastic resin pellets as a transport medium for toxic chemicals in the marine environment, Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 318, 10.1021/es0010498

McDermid, 2004, Quantitative analysis of small plastic debris on beaches in the Hawaiian archipelago, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 48, 790, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.10.017

McDonough, 2002

Mehta, A., 2007. China–India Plastics Industry Summit 2007—Visit Report. Summit of Chinese and Indian Plastic Industries, Guanzhou, China, May 20, 2007.

Moore, 2003, Trashed: across the Pacific Ocean, plastics, plastics everywhere, Nat. Hist., 112

Moore, 2001, A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 42, 1297, 10.1016/S0025-326X(01)00114-X

Moore, 2002, A comparison of neustonic plastic and zooplankton abundance in southern California's coastal waters, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 44, 1035, 10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00150-9

Moore, C.J., Lattin, G.L., Zellers, A.F., 2005a. A brief analysis of organic pollutants sorbed to pre and postproduction plastic particles from the Los Angeles and San Gabriel River Watersheds. In: Proceedings of the Plastic Debris Rivers to Sea Conference, Algalita Marine Research Foundation, Long Beach, CA.

Moore, C.J., Lattin, G.L. Zellers, A.F., 2005b. Working our way upstream: a snapshot of landbased contributions of plastic and other trash to coastal waters and beaches of Southern California. In: Proceedings of the Plastic Debris Rivers to Sea Conference, Algalita Marine Research Foundation, Long Beach, CA.

Moore, C.J., Lattin, G.L., Zellers, A.F., 2005c. Measuring the effectiveness of voluntary plastic industry efforts: AMRF’S analysis of Operation Clean Sweep. In: Proceedings of the Plastic Debris Rivers to Sea Conference, Algalita Marine Research Foundation, Long Beach, CA.

Moore, 2001, Composition and distribution of beach debris in Orange County, California, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 42, 241, 10.1016/S0025-326X(00)00148-X

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Mapping of Marine Mammal Entanglement Wounds. 〈http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/fall03articles/sources-of-mortality.html〉.

New York Times, 1999. Trying to be green, many companies invested in biodegradable plastics; they ended up in the red, February 6, 1999.

Ng, 2006, Prevalence of microplastics in Singapore's coastal marine environment, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 52, 761, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.11.017

Ocean Conservancy, 2007. National Marine Debris Monitoring Program, Final Report, Washington, DC.

Ogi, 1999, Sampling of plastic pellets by two types of neuston net and plastic pollution in the sea, Bull. Fac. Fish. Hokkaido Univ., 50, 77

Pichel, 2007, Marine debris collects within the North Pacific Subtropical Convergence Zone, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 54, 1207, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.04.010

Rees, E.I.S., Southward, A.J., 2008. Plastic flotsam as an agent for dispersal of Perforatus perforatus (Cirripedia: Balanidae). J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK (JABA2-Biodiversity Records, published online).

Rios, 2007, Persistent organic pollutants carried by synthetic polymers in the ocean environment, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 54, 1230, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.022

Ryan, 1988, Plastic ingestion and PCBs in seabirds: is there a relationship?, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 19, 174, 10.1016/0025-326X(88)90674-1

Sajiki, 2003, Leaching of bisphenol A (BPA) to seawater from polycarbonate plastic and its degradation by reactive oxygen species, Chemosphere, 51, 55, 10.1016/S0045-6535(02)00789-0

Sileo, L., Sievert, P.R., Samuel, M.D., Fefer, S.I., 1990. Prevalence and characteristics of plastic ingested by Hawaiian seabirds. In: Shomura, R.S., Godfrey, M.L. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Marine Debris, 1989. Honolulu, Hawaii. US Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memo. NMFS. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-154.

Swift, 2003, Biodegradable water-soluble polymers, 491

Takehama, S., 1990. Estimation of damages to fishing vessels caused by marine debris, based on insurance statistics. In: Shomura, R.S., Godfrey, L. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Marine Debris, Honolulu, HI, 2–7 April 1989, , pp. 792–809, NOAA-TMNMFS-SWFSC-154.

Teuten, 2007, Potential for plastics to transport hydrophobic contaminants, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41, 7759, 10.1021/es071737s

Thompson, 2004, Lost at sea: where is all the plastic?, Science, 304, 838, 10.1126/science.1094559

UNEP, 2001. United Nations Environment Program, Global Programme of Action Coordination Office; “Marine Litter-trash that kills”, The Hague, Netherlands.

Uneputty, 1997, The impact of plastic debris on the biota of tidal flats in Ambon Bay (eastern Indonesia), Mar. Environ. Res., 44, 233, 10.1016/S0141-1136(97)00002-0

United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1992. Plastic pellets in the aquatic environment: Sources and recommendations. EPA Oceans and Coastal Protection Division Report 842-B-92-010, Washington, DC.

United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003. Municipal Solid Waste Generation in the United States, Washington, DC.

Unnithan, S., 1998. Through thick, not thin, say ragpickers. Indian Express 23 November.

Vom Saal, 2005, Large effects from small exposures. II. The importance of positive controls in low-dose research on bisphenol A, Environ. Res., 100, 50, 10.1016/j.envres.2005.09.001

Walker, 1997, Marine debris surveys at Bird Island, South Georgia 1990–1995, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 34, 61, 10.1016/S0025-326X(96)00053-7

Wallace, N., 1985. Debris entanglement in the marine environment: a review. In: Shomura, R.S., Yoshida, H.O. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Workshop on the Fate and Impact of Marine Debris, Honolulu, Hawaii, November 27–29, 1984, US Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memo, NMFS, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-54, pp. 259–277.

Wirsen, 1971, Microbial degradation of organic matter in the deep sea, Science, 171, 672, 10.1126/science.171.3972.672

Zitco, 1991, Another source of pollution by plastics: skin cleaners with plastic scrubbers, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 22, 41, 10.1016/0025-326X(91)90444-W