Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock, 2012

Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J et al (2001) Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med 29:1303–1310

Dellinger RP (2003) Cardiovascular management of septic shock. Crit Care Med 31:946–955

Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S et al (2003) The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med 348:1546–1554

Linde-Zwirble WT, Angus DC (2004) Severe sepsis epidemiology: sampling, selection, and society. Crit Care 8:222–226

Dombrovskiy VY, Martin AA, Sunderram J et al (2007) Rapid increase in hospitalization and mortality rates for severe sepsis in the United States: a trend analysis from 1993 to 2003. Crit Care Med 35:1414–1415

Levy MM, Fink MP, Marshall JC et al (2003) 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS international sepsis definitions conference. Crit Care Med 31:1250–1256

Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM et al (2008) International guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 36:296–327 (Erratum in: Crit Care Med 2008; 36:1394–1396 and Intensive Care Med 2008; 34:17–60)

Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H et al (2004) Surviving sepsis campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 32:858–873 and Intensive Care Med 30:536–555

Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Vist GE et al (2008) GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ 336:924–926

Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Kunz R et al (2008) What is “quality of evidence” and why is it important to clinicians? BMJ 336:995–998

Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Kunz R et al (2008) Going from evidence to recommendations. BMJ 336:1049–1051

Brożek J, Oxman AD, Schünemann HJ (2012) GRADEpro (computer program) version 3.2 for windows. http://www.cc-ims.net/revman/gradepro

Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S et al (2001) Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 345:1368–1377

Early Goal-Directed Therapy Collaborative Group of Zhejiang Province (2010) The effect of early goal-directed therapy on treatment of critical patients with severe sepsis/septic shock: a multi-center, prospective, randomized, controlled study (in Chinese). Zhongguo Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Yi Xue 6:331–334

Levy MM, Dellinger RP, Townsend SR, Surviving Sepsis Campaign et al (2010) The Surviving Sepsis Campaign: results of an international guideline-based performance improvement program targeting severe sepsis. Crit Care Med 38:367–374

Bendjelid K, Romand JA (2003) Fluid responsiveness in mechanically ventilated patients: a review of indices used in intensive care. Intensive Care Med 29:352–360

Malbrain ML, Deeren D, De Potter TJ (2005) Intraabdominal hypertension in the critically ill: it is time to pay attention. Curr Opin Crit Care 11:156–171

Varpula M, Tallgren M, Saukkonen K et al (2005) Hemodynamic variables related to outcome in septic shock. Intensive Care Med 31:1066–1071

Kortgen A, Niederprum P, Bauer M (2006) Implementation of an evidence-based “standard operating procedure” and outcome in septic shock. Crit Care Med 34:943–949

Sebat F, Johnson D, Musthafa AA et al (2005) A multidisciplinary community hospital program for early and rapid resuscitation of shock in nontrauma patients. Chest 127:1729–1743

Shapiro NI, Howell MD, Talmor D et al (2006) Implementation and outcomes of the multiple urgent sepsis therapies (MUST) protocol. Crit Care Med 34:1025–1032

Micek SST, Roubinian N, Heuring T et al (2006) Before-after study of a standardized hospital order set for the management of septic shock. Crit Care Med 34:2707–2713

Nguyen HB, Corbett SW, Steele R et al (2007) Implementation of a bundle of quality indicators for the early management of severe sepsis and septic shock is associated with decreased mortality. Crit Care Med 35:1105–1112

Shorr AF, Micek ST, Jackson WL Jr et al (2007) Economic implications of an evidence-based sepsis protocol: can we improve outcomes and lower costs? Crit Care Med 35:1257–1262

Reinhart K, Kuhn HJ, Hartog C et al (2004) Continuous central venous and pulmonary artery oxygen saturation monitoring in the critically ill. Intensive Care Med 30:1572–1578

Trzeciak S, Dellinger RP, Abate N et al (2006) Translating research to clinical practice: a 1-year experience with implementing early goal-directed therapy for septic shock in the emergency department. Chest 129:225–232

Magder S (2006) Central venous pressure: a useful but not so simple measurement. Crit Care Med 34:2224–2227

Bendjelid K (2005) Right arterial pressure: determinant or result of change in venous return? Chest 128:3639–3640

Vincent JL, Weil MH (2006) Fluid challenge revisited. Crit Care Med 34:1333–1337

Trzeciak S, Dellinger RP, Parrillo JE et al (2007) Early microcirculatory perfusion derangements in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock: relationship to hemodynamics, oxygen transport, and survival. Ann Emerg Med 49:88–98

De Backer D, Creteur J, Dubois MJ et al (2006) The effects of dobutamine on microcirculatory alternations in patients with septic shock are independent of its systemic effects. Crit Care Med 34:403–408

Buwalda M, Ince C (2002) Opening the microcirculation: can vasodilators be useful in sepsis? Intensive Care Med 28:1208–1217

Boldt J (2002) Clinical review: hemodynamic monitoring in the intensive care unit. Crit Care 6:52–59

Pinsky MR, Payen D (2005) Functional hemodynamic monitoring. Crit Care 9:566–572

Jones AE, Shapiro NI, Trzeciak S, Emergency MEDICINE SHOCK RESEARCH NETWORk (EMShockNet) Investigators et al (2010) Lactate clearance vs central venous oxygen saturation as goals of early sepsis therapy: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 303:739–746

Jansen TC, van Bommel J, Schoonderbeek FJ et al (2010) Early lactate-guided therapy in intensive care unit patients: a multicenter, open-label, randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 182:752–761

Cinel I, Dellinger RP (2006) Current treatment of severe sepsis. Curr Infect Dis Rep 8:358–365

Moore LJ, Jones SL, Kreiner LA et al (2009) Validation of a screening tool for the early identification of sepsis. J Trauma 66:1539–1546 (discussion 1546–1547)

Subbe CP, Kruger M, Rutherford P et al (2001) Validation of a modified early warning score in medical admissions. Quart J Med 94:521–526

Evaluation for Severe Sepsis Screening Tool, Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI). http://www.ihi.org/IHI/Topics/CriticalCare/Sepsis/Tools/EvaluationforSevereSepsisScreeningTool.htm

Evaluation for severe sepsis screening tool (2012) http://www.survivingsepsis.org/files/Tools/evaluationforseveresepsisscreeningtool.pdf

Rivers EP, Ahrens T (2008) Improving outcomes for severe sepsis and septic shock: tools for early identification of at-risk patients and treatment protocol implementation. Crit Care Clin 23:S1–S47

Gao F, Melody T, Daniels DF et al (2005) The impact of compliance with 6-hour and 24-hour sepsis bundles on hospital mortality in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective observational study. Crit Care 9:R764–R770

Schorr C (2009) Performance improvement in the management of sepsis. Crit Care Clin 25:857–867

Girardis M, Rinaldi L, Donno L et al (2009) Sopravvivere alla Sepsi Group of the Modena-University Hospital: effects on management and outcome of severe sepsis and septic shock patients admitted to the intensive care unit after implementation of a sepsis program: a pilot study. Crit Care 13:R143

Pestaña D, Espinosa E, Sangüesa-Molina JR et al (2010) Compliance with a sepsis bundle and its effect on intensive care unit mortality in surgical septic shock patients. J Trauma 69:1282–1287

Berenholtz SM, Pronovost PJ, Ngo K et al (2007) Developing quality measures for sepsis care in the ICU. Jt Comm J Qual Patient Safety 33:559–568

Black MD, Schorr C, Levy MM (2012) Knowledge translation and the multifaceted intervention in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 40:1324–1328

Suarez A, Ferrer R, Artigas A et al (2011) Cost-effectiveness of the Surviving Sepsis Campaign protocol for severe sepsis: a prospective nationwide study in Spain. Intensive Care Med 37:444–452

Levy MM, Pronovost PJ, Dellinger RP et al (2004) Sepsis change bundles: converting guidelines into meaningful change in behavior and clinical outcome. Crit Care Med 32(Suppl):S595–S597

Weinstein MP, Reller LP, Murphy JR et al (1983) The clinical significance of positive blood cultures: a comprehensive analysis of 500 episodes of bacteremia and fungemia in adults. I. Laboratory and epidemiologic observations. Rev Infect Dis 5:35–53

Blot F, Schmidt E, Nitenberg G et al (1998) Earlier positivity of central venous versus peripheral blood cultures is highly predictive of catheter-related sepsis. J Clin Microbiol 36:105–109

Mermel LA, Maki DG (1993) Detection of bacteremia in adults: consequences of culturing an inadequate volume of blood. Ann Intern Med 119:270–272

(2005) Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 171:388–416

Muscedere J, Dodek P, Keenan S et al (2008) Comprehensive evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for ventilator-associated pneumonia: diagnosis and treatment. J Crit Care 23:138–147

Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Giannopoulou P, Grecka P et al (2004) Should procalcitonin be introduced in the diagnostic criteria for the systemic inflammatory response syndrome and sepsis? J Crit Care 19:152–157

Uzzan B, Cohen R, Nicolas P et al (2006) Procalcitonin as a diagnostic test for sepsis in critically ill adults after surgery or trauma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 34:1996–2003

Tang BM, Eslick GD, Craig JC et al (2007) Accuracy of procalcitonin for sepsis diagnosis in critically ill patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 7:210–217

Tenover FC (2007) Rapid detection and identification of bacterial pathogens using novel molecular technologies: infection control and beyond. Clin Infect Dis 44:418–423

Klouche M, Schroder U (2008) Rapid methods for diagnosis of bloodstream infections. Clin Chem Lab Med 46:888–908

Tissari P, Zumla A, Tarkka E et al (2010) Accurate and rapid identification of bacterial species from positive blood cultures with a DNA-based microarray platform: an observational study. Lancet 16(375):224–230

Alam FF, Mustafa AS, Khan ZU (2007) Comparative evaluation of (1,3)-beta-d-glucan, mannan and anti-mannan antibodies, and Candida species-specific snPCR in patients with candidemia. BMC Infect Dis 7:103

Oliveri S, Trovato L, Betta P et al (2008) Experience with the Platelia Candida ELISA for the diagnosis of invasive candidosis in neonatal patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 14:391–393

Sendid B, Poirot JL, Tabouret M et al (2002) Combined detection of mannanaemia and antimannan antibodies as a strategy for the diagnosis of systemic infection caused by pathogenic Candida species. J Med Microbiol 51:433–442

Sendid B, Jouault T, Coudriau R et al (2004) Increased sensitivity of mannanemia detection tests by joint detection of alpha- and beta-linked oligomannosides during experimental and human systemic candidiasis. J Clin Microbiol 42:164–171

Sendid B, Dotan N, Nseir S et al (2008) Antibodies against glucan, chitin, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae mannan as new biomarkers of Candida albicans infection that complement tests based on C. albicans mannan. Clin Vaccine Immunol 15:1868–1877

Yera H, Sendid B, Francois N et al (2001) Contribution of serological tests and blood culture to the early diagnosis of systemic candidiasis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 20:864–870

Kumar A, Roberts D, Wood KE et al (2006) Duration of hypotension prior to initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med 34:1589–1596

Morrell M, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH (2005) Delaying the empiric treatment of candida bloodstream infection until positive blood culture results are obtained: a potential risk factor for hospital mortality. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49:3640–3645

Ferrer R, Artigas A, Suarez D et al (2009) Effectiveness of treatments for severe sepsis: a prospective, multicenter, observational study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 180:861–866

Barie PS, Hydo LJ, Shou J et al (2005) Influence of antibiotic therapy on mortality of critical illness caused or complicated by infection. Surg Infect 6:41–54

Castellanos-Ortega A, Suberviola B, Garcia-Astudillo LA et al (2010) Impact of the surviving sepsis protocols on hospital length of stay and mortality in septic shock patients: results of a three-year follow-up quasi-experimental study. Crit Care Med 38:1036–1043

Puskarich MA, Trzeciak S, Shapiro MI et al (2011) Association between timing of antibiotic administration and mortality from septic shock inpatients treated with a quantitative resuscitation protocol. Crit Care Med 39:2066–2071

El Solh AA, Akinnusi ME, Alsawalha LN et al (2008) Outcome of septic shock in older adults after implementation of the sepsis “Bundle”. J Am Geriat Soc 56:272–278

Gurnani PK, Patel GP, Crank CW et al (2010) Impact of the implementation of a sepsis protocol for the management of fluid-refractory septic shock: a single-center, before-and-after study. Clin Therap 32:1285–1293

Larsen GY, Mecham N, Greenberg R (2011) An emergency department septic shock protocol and care guideline for children initiated at triage. Pediatrics 127:e1585–e1592

Barochia AV, Cui X, Vitberg D et al (2010) Bundled care for septic shock: an analysis of clinical trials. Crit Care Med 38:668–678

Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes D et al (2009) Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 48:503–535

Leibovici L, Shraga I, Drucker M et al (1998) The benefit of appropriate empirical antibiotic treatment in patients with bloodstream infection. J Intern Med 244:379–386

Ibrahim EH, Sherman G, Ward S et al (2000) The influence of inadequate antimicrobial treatment of bloodstream infections on patient outcomes in the ICU setting. Chest 118:146–155

Ali MZ, Goetz MB (1997) A meta-analysis of the relative efficacy and toxicity of single daily dosing versus multiple daily dosing of aminoglycosides. Clin Infect Dis 24:796–809

Amsden GW, Ballow CH, Bertino JS (2010) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of anti-infective agents. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R (eds) Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 7th edn. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, pp 297–307

Heyland DK, Reynolds S, Jiang X et al (2011) Procalcitonin for reduced antibiotic exposure in the critical care setting: a systematic review and an economic evaluation. Crit Care Med 39:1792–1799

Jensen JU, Hein L, Lundgren B et al (2011) Procalcitonin-guided interventions against infections to increase early appropriate antibiotics and improve survival in the intensive care unit: a randomized trial. Crit Care Med 39:2048–2058

Brunkhorst FM, Oppert M, Marx G et al (2012) Effect of empirical treatment with moxifloxacin and meropenem vs meropenem on sepsis-related organ dysfunction in patients with severe sepsis. JAMA 307:2390–2399

Kumar A, Safdar N, Kethireddy S et al (2010) A survival benefit of combination antibiotic therapy for serious infections associated with sepsis and septic shock is contingent only of death: a meta-analytic/meta-regression study. Crit Care Med 38:1651–1664

Kumar A, Zarychanski R, Light B et al (2010) Early combination antibiotic therapy yields improved survival compared with monotherapy: a propensity-matched analysis. Crit Care Med 38:1773–1785

Micek ST, Welch EC, Khan J et al (2010) Empiric combination antimicrobial therapy is associated with improved outcome against sepsis due to gram-negative bacteria: a retrospective analysis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 54:1742–1748

Al-Hassan MN, Wilson JW, Lahr BD et al (2009) Beta-lactam and fluoroquinolone combination antibiotic therapy for bacteremia caused by gram-negative bacilli. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53:1386–1394

Klastersky J (2004) Management of fever in neutropenic patients with different risks of complications. Clin Infect Dis 39(Suppl 1):S32–S37

Martin-Loeches I, Lisboa T, Rodriguez A et al (2010) Combination antibiotic therapy with macrolides improves survival in intubated patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 36:612–620

Rodriguez A, Mendia A, Sirvent JM et al (2007) Combination antibiotic therapy improves survival in patients with community-acquired pneumonia and shock. Crit Care Med 35:1493–1498

Baddour LM, Yu VL, Klugman KP et al (2004) Combination antibiotic therapy lowers mortality among severely ill patients with pneumococcal bacteremia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 170:440–444

Safdar N, Handelsman J, Maki DG (2004) Does combination antimicrobial therapy reduce mortality in Gram-negative bacteraemia? A meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 4:519–527

Paul M, Silbiger I, Grozinsky S et al (2006) Beta lactam antibiotic monotherapy versus beta lactam aminoglycoside antibiotic combination therapy for sepsis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1):CD003344

Garnacho-Montero J, Sa-Borges M, Sole-Violan J et al (2007) Optimal management therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa ventilator associated pneumonia: an observational, multicenter study comparing monotherapy with combination antibiotic therapy. Crit Care Med 35:1888–1895

Jain S, Kamimoto L, Bramley AM et al (2009) Hospitalized patients with 2009 H1N1 influenza in the United States, April–June 2009. N Engl J Med 361:1935–1944

Writing Committee of the WHO Consultation on Clinical Aspects of Pandemic (H1N1) 2009 Influenza, Bautista E, Chotpitayasunondh T et al (2009) Clinical aspects of pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus infection. N Engl J Med 2010(362):1708–1719

Smith JR, Ariano RE, Toovey S (2010) The use of antiviral agents for the management of severe influenza. Crit Care Med 38(Suppl 4):e43–e51

Fiore AE, Fry A, Shay D et al (2011) Antiviral agents for the treatment and chemoprophylaxis of influenza: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 60:1–24

Kalil A (2008) A silent killer: cytomegalovirus infection in the non-immunocompromised critically ill patient. Crit Care Med 36:3261–3264

Ziemann M, Sedemund-Adib B, Reibland P et al (2008) Increased mortality in long-term intensive care patients with active cytomegalovirus infection. Crit Care Med 36:3145–3150

Hotchkiss RS, Opal SM (2010) Immunotherapy for sepsis: a new approach against an ancient foe. N Engl J Med 363:87–89

Miller GG, Dummer JS (2007) Herpes simplex and varicella zoster viruses: forgotten but not gone. Am J Transpl 7:741–747

Jimenez MF, Marshall JC (2001) Source control in the management of sepsis. Intensive Care Med 27:S49–S62

Moss RL, Musemeche CA, Kosloske AM (1996) Necrotizing fascitis in children: prompt recognition and aggressive therapy improve survival. J Pediatr Surg 31:1142–1146

Boyer A, Vargas F, Coste F et al (2009) Influence of surgical treatment on mortality from necrotizing soft tissue infections requiring intensive care management. Intensive Care Med 35:847–853

Bufalari A, Giustozzi G, Moggi L (1996) Postoperative intraabdominal abscesses: percutaneous versus surgical treatment. Acta Chir Belg 96:197–200

O’Grady NP, Alexander M, Dellinger EP et al (2002) Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. MMWR Recomm Rep 51:1–29

O’Grady NP, Alexander M, Dellinger EP et al (2002) Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. Clin Infect Dis 35:1281–1307

Mier J, Leon EL, Castillo A et al (1997) Early versus late necrosectomy in severe necrotizing pancreatitis. Am J Surg 173:71–75

van Santvoort HC, Besselink MG, Bakker OJ et al (2010) A step-up approach or open necrosectomy for necrotizing pancreatitis. N Engl J Med 362:1491–1502

Evans A, Winslow BH (1995) Oxygen saturation and hemodynamic response in critically ill mechanically ventilated adults during intra hospital transport. Am J Crit Care 4:106–111

Aitken LM, Williams G, Harvey M et al (2011) Nursing considerations to complement the Surviving Sepsis Campaign. Crit Care Med 39:1800–1818

Liberati A, D’Amico R, Pifferi S et al (2010) Antibiotic prophylaxis to reduce respiratory tract infections and mortality in adults receiving intensive care. Cochrane Collab 9:1–72

de Jonge E, Schultz MJ, Spanjaard L et al (2003) Effects of selective decontamination of the digestive tract on mortality and acquisition of resistance bacteria on intensive care: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 362:1011–1016

de Smet AMGA, Kluytmans JAJM, Cooper BS et al (2009) Decontamination of the digestive tract and oropharynx in ICU patients. N Engl J Med 360:20–31

Cuthbertson BH, Francis J, Campbell MK et al (2010) A study of the perceived risks, benefits and barriers to the use of SDD in adult critical care units (SuDDICU study). Trials 11:117

de Smet AMGA, Kluytmans JAJM, Blok HEM et al (2011) Selective digestive tract decontamination and selective oropharyngeal decontamination and antibiotic resistance in patients in the intensive care unit: an open label, cluster grouped, randomized cross over study. Lancet Infect Dis 11:372–380

Oostdijk EAN, de Smet AMGA, Blok HEM et al (2010) Ecological effects of selective decontamination on resistant gram-negative bacterial colonization. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 181:452–457

Ochoa-Ardila ME, García-Cañas A, Gómez-Mediavilla K et al (2011) Long-term use of selective decontamination of the digestive tract does not increase antibiotic resistance: a 5-year prospective cohort study. Intensive Care Med 37:1458–1465

Guidet B, Martinet O, Boulain T et al (2012) Assessment of hemodynamic efficacy and safety of 6% hydroxyethylstarch 130/0.4 vs 0.9% NaCl fluid replacement in patients with severe sepsis: the CRYSTMAS study. Crit Care 16:R94

Perner A, Haase N, Guttormsen AB et al (2012) Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.42 versus Ringer’s acetate in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 367:124–134

Myburgh JA, Finfer S, Bellomo R et al (2012) Hydroxyethyl starch or saline for fluid resuscitation in intensive care. N Engl J Med. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1209759

Perel P, Roberts I (2011) Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3):CD000567 (Review)

Schortgen F, Lacherade JC, Bruneel F et al (2001) Effects of hydroxyethyl starch and gelatin on renal function in severe sepsis: a multicentre randomised study. Lancet 357:911–916

McIntyre LA, Fergusson D, Cook DJ et al (2008) Fluid resuscitation in the management of early septic shock (FINESS): a randomized controlled feasibility trial. Can J Anaesth 55:819–826

Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Bloos F et al (2008) Intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 358:125–139

Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N et al (2004) A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med 350:2247–2256

Delaney AP, Dan A, McCaffrey J et al (2011) The role of albumin as a resuscitation fluid for patients with sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 39:386–391

Marik PE, Teboul JL (2011) Hemodynamic parameters to guide fluid therapy. Ann Intensive Care 1:1

Marik PE, Cavallazzi R, Vasu T et al (2009) Dynamic changes in arterial waveform derived variables and fluid responsiveness in mechanically ventilated patients: a systematic review of the literature. Crit Care Med 37:2642–2647

Hollenberg SM, Ahrens TS, Annane D et al (2004) Practice parameters for hemodynamic support of sepsis in adult patients: 2004 update. Crit Care Med 32:1928–1948

LeDoux D, Astiz ME, Carpati CM et al (2000) Effects of perfusion pressure on tissue perfusion in septic shock. Crit Care Med 28:2729–2732

Martin C, Papazian L, Perrin G et al (1993) Norepinephrine or dopamine for the treatment of hyperdynamic septic shock? Chest 103:1826–1831

Martin C, Viviand X, Leone M et al (2000) Effect of norepinephrine on the outcome of septic shock. Crit Care Med 28:2758–2765

De Backer D, Creteur J, Silva E et al (2003) Effects of dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine on the splanchnic circulation in septic shock: which is best? Crit Care Med 31:1659–1667

Day NP, Phu NH, Bethell DP et al (1996) The effects of dopamine and adrenaline infusions on acid-base balance and systemic haemodynamics in severe infection. Lancet 348:219–223

Le Tulzo Y, Seguin P, Gacouin A et al (1997) Effects of epinephrine on right ventricular function in patients with severe septic shock and right ventricular failure: a preliminary descriptive study. Intensive Care Med 23:664–670

Bollaert PE, Bauer P, Audibert G et al (1990) Effects of epinephrine on hemodynamics and oxygen metabolism in dopamine-resistant septic shock. Chest 98:949–953

Zhou SX, Qiu HB, Huang YZ et al (2002) Effects of norepinephrine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine-dobutamine on systemic and gastric mucosal oxygenation in septic shock. Acta Pharm Sin 23:654–658

Levy B, Bollaert PE, Charpentier C et al (1997) Comparison of norepinephrine and dobutamine to epinephrine for hemodynamics, lactate metabolism, and gastric tonometric variables in septic shock: a prospective, randomized study. Intensive Care Med 23:282–287

Mackenzie SJ, Kapadia F, Nimmo GR et al (1991) Adrenaline in treatment of septic shock: effects on haemodynamics and oxygen transport. Intensive Care Med 17:36–39

Moran JL, O’Fathartaigh MS, Peisach AR et al (1993) Epinephrine as an inotropic agent in septic shock: a dose-profile analysis. Crit Care Med 21:70–77

Yamazaki T, Shimada Y, Taenaka N et al (1982) Circulatory responses to after loading with phenylephrine in hyperdynamic sepsis. Crit Care Med 10:432–435

Gregory JS, Bonfiglio MF, Dasta JF et al (1991) Experience with phenylephrine as a component of the pharmacologic support of septic shock. Crit Care Med 19:1395–1400

Annane D, Vignon P, Renault A, For the CATS Study Group et al (2007) Norepinephrine plus dobutamine versus epinephrine alone for management of septic shock: a randomized trial. Lancet 370:676–684

Regnier B, Rapin M, Gory G et al (1977) Haemodynamic effects of dopamine in septic shock. Intensive Care Med 3:47–53

Ruokonen E, Takala J, Kari A et al (1993) Regional blood flow and oxygen transport in septic shock. Crit Care Med 21:1296–1303

Marik PE, Mohedin M (1994) The contrasting effects of dopamine and norepinephrine on systemic and splanchnic oxygen utilization in hyperdynamic sepsis. JAMA 272:1354–1357

Patel GP, Grahe JS, Sperry M et al (2010) Efficacy and safety of dopamine versus norepinephrine in the management of septic shock. Shock 33:375–380

De Backer D, Biston P, Devriendt J et al (2010) Comparison of dopamine and norepinephrine in the treatment of shock. N Engl J Med 362:779–789

De Backer D, Aldecoa C, Njimi H et al (2012) Dopamine versus norepinephrine in the treatment of septic shock: a meta-analysis. Crit Care 40:725–730

Seguin P, Bellissant E, Le-Tulzo Y et al (2002) Effects of epinephrine compared with the combination of dobutamine and norepinephrine on gastric perfusion in septic shock. Clin Pharmacol Ther 71:381–388

Myburgh JA, Higgins A, Jovanovska A et al (2008) A comparison of epinephrine and norepinephrine in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 34:2226–2234

Morelli A, Ertmer C, Rehberg S et al (2008) Phenylephrine versus norepinephrine for initial hemodynamic support of patients with septic shock: a randomized, controlled trial. Crit Care 12:R143

Landry DW, Levin HR, Gallant EM et al (1997) Vasopressin deficiency contributes to the vasodilation of septic shock. Circulation 95:1122–1125

Patel BM, Chittock DR, Russell JA et al (2002) Beneficial effects of short-term vasopressin infusion during severe septic shock. Anesthesiology 96:576–582

Dünser MW, Mayr AJ, Ulmer H et al (2003) Arginine vasopressin in advanced vasodilatory shock: a prospective, randomized, controlled study. Circulation 107:2313–2319

Holmes CL, Patel BM, Russell JA et al (2001) Physiology of vasopressin relevant to management of septic shock. Chest 120:989–1002

Malay MB, Ashton RC, Landry DW et al (1999) Low-dose vasopressin in the treatment of vasodilatory septic shock. J Trauma 47:699–705

Holmes CL, Walley KR, Chittock DR et al (2001) The effects of vasopressin on hemodynamics and renal function in severe septic shock: a case series. Intensive Care Med 27:1416–1421

Lauzier F, Levy B, Lamarre P et al (2006) Vasopressin or norepinephrine in early hyperdynamic septic shock: a randomized clinical trial. Intensive Care Med 32:1782–1789

O’Brien A, Calpp L, Singer M (2002) Terlipressin for norepinephrine-resistant septic shock. Lancet 359:1209–1210

Sharshar T, Blanchard A, Paillard M et al (2003) Circulating vasopressin levels in septic shock. Crit Care Med 31:1752–1758

Russell JA, Walley KR, Singer J et al (2008) Vasopressin versus norepinephrine infusion in patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med 358:877–887

Dünser MW, Mayr AJ, Tura A et al (2003) Ischemic skin lesions as a complication of continuous vasopressin infusion in catecholamine-resistant vasodilatory shock: incidence and risk factors. Crit Care Med 31:1394–1398

Albanèse J, Leone M, Delmas A et al (2005) Terlipressin or norepinephrine in hyperdynamic septic shock: a prospective, randomized study. Crit Care Med 33:1897–1902

Morelli A, Ertmer C, Lange M et al (2008) Effects of short-term simultaneous infusion of dobutamine and terlipressin in patients with septic shock: the DOBUPRESS study. Br J Anesth 100:494–503

Morelli A, Ertmer C, Rehberg S et al (2009) Continuous terlipressin versus vasopressin infusion in septic shock (TERLIVAP): a randomized, controlled pilot study. Crit Care 13:R130

Bellomo R, Chapman M, Finfer S et al (2000) Low-dose dopamine in patients with early renal dysfunction: a placebo-controlled randomised trial. Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society (ANZICS) Clinical Trials Group. Lancet 356:2139–2143

Kellum J, Decker J (2001) Use of dopamine in acute renal failure: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 29:1526–1531

Gattinoni L, Brazzi L, Pelosi P et al (1995) A trial of goal-oriented hemodynamic therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 333:1025–1032

Hayes MA, Timmins AC, Yau EHS et al (1994) Elevation of systemic oxygen delivery in the treatment of critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 330:1717–1722

Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C et al (2002) Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 288:862–871

Briegel J, Forst H, Haller M et al (1999) Stress doses of hydrocortisone reverse hyperdynamic septic shock: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, single-center study. Crit Care Med 27:723–732

Bollaert PE, Charpentier C, Levy B et al (1998) Reversal of late septic shock with supraphysiologic doses of hydrocortisone. Crit Care Med 26:645–650

Sprung CL, Annane D, Keh D et al (2008) Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med 358:111–124

Annane D, Bellissant E, Bollaert PE et al (2009) Corticosteroids in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock in adults: a systematic review. JAMA 301:2362–2375

Sligl WI, Milner DA Jr, Sundar S et al (2009) Safety and efficacy of corticosteroids for the treatment of septic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 49:93–101

Patel GP, Balk RA (2012) Systemic steroids in severe sepsis and septic shock. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 185:133–139

Oppert M, Schindler R, Husung C et al (2005) Low dose hydrocortisone improves shock reversal and reduces cytokine levels in early hyperdynamic septic shock. Crit Care Med 33:2457–2464

Yildiz O, Doganay M, Aygen B et al (2002) Physiologic-dose steroid therapy in sepsis. Crit Care 6:251–259

Briegel J, Möhnle P, Sprung CL et al (2009) Multicenter comparison of cortisol as measured by different methods in samples of patients with septic shock. Intensive Care Med 35:2151–2156

Allolio B, Dorr H, Stuttmann R et al (1985) Effect of a single bolus of etomidate upon eight major corticosteroid hormone and plasma ACTH. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 22:281–286

Jabre P, Combes X, Lapostolle F et al (2009) Etomidate versus ketamine for rapid sequence intubation in acutely ill patients: a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 374:293–300

Cuthbertson BH, Sprung CL, Annane D et al (2009) The effects of etomidate on adrenal responsiveness and mortality in patients with septic shock. Intensive Care Med 35:1868–1876

Keh D, Boehnke T, Weber-Carstens S et al (2003) Immunologic and hemodynamic effects of “low-dose” hydrocortisone in septic shock: a double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled, crossover study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 167:512–520

Huh JW, Choi HS, Lim CM et al (2011) Low-dose hydrocortisone treatment for patients with septic shock: a pilot study comparing 3 days with 7 days. Respirology 16:1088–1095

Confalonieri M, Urbino R, Potena A et al (2005) Hydrocortisone infusion for severe community-acquired pneumonia: a preliminary randomized study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 171:242–248

Meijvis SCA, Hardemann H, Remmelts HHF et al (2011) Dexamethasone and length of hospital stay in patients with community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 377:2023–2030

Weber-Carstens S, Deja M, Bercker S et al (2007) Impact of bolus application of low-dose hydrocortisone on glycemic control in septic shock patients. Intensive Care Med 33:730–733

Hébert PC, Wells G, Blajchman MA et al (1999) A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial of transfusion in critical care. N Engl J Med 340:409–417

Hajjar LA, Vincent JL, Galas FRBG et al (2010) Transfusion requirements after cardiac surgery: the TRACS randomized controlled trial. JAMA 304:1559–1567

Marik PE, Sibbald WJ (1993) Effect of stored-blood transfusion on oxygen delivery in patients with sepsis. JAMA 269:3024–3029

Lorente JA, Landín L, dePablo R et al (1993) Effects of blood transfusion on oxygen transport variables in severe sepsis. Crit Care Med 21:1312–1318

Fernandes CJ, Akamine N, DeMarco FVC et al (2001) Red blood cell transfusion does not increase oxygen consumption in critically ill septic patients. Crit Care 5:362–567

Corwin HL, Gettinger A, Rodriguez RM et al (1999) Efficacy of recombinant human erythropoietin in the critically ill patient: a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Crit Care Med 27:2346–2350

Corwin HL, Gettinger A, Pearl RG et al (2002) Efficacy of recombinant human erythropoietin in critically ill patients. JAMA 28:2827–2835

College of American Pathologists (1994) Practice parameter for the use of fresh-frozen plasma, cryoprecipitate, and platelets. JAMA 271:777–781

Canadian Medical Association Expert Working Group (1997) Guidelines for red blood cell and plasma transfusion for adults and children. Can Med Assoc J 156:S1–S24

American Society of Anaesthesiologists Task Force on Blood Component Therapy (1996) Practice guidelines for blood component therapy. Anesthesiology 84:732–747

Liumbruno GL, Bennardello F, Lattanzio A et al (2009) Recommendations for the transfusion of plasma and platelets. Blood Transfus 7:132–150

Abdel-Wahab OI, Healy B, Dzik WH (2006) Effect of fresh-frozen plasma transfusion on prothrombin time and bleeding in patients with mild coagulation abnormalities. Transfusion 46:1279–1285

Stanworth SJ, Walsh TS, Prescott RJ et al (2011) A national study of plasma use in critical care: clinical indications, dose, and effect on prothrombin time. Crit Care 15:R108

Warren BL, Eid A, Singer P et al (2001) High-dose antithrombin III in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 286:1869–1878

Wiedermann CJ, Hoffmann JN, Juers M et al (2006) High-dose antithrombin III in the treatment of severe sepsis in patients with a high risk of death: efficacy and safety. Crit Care Med 34:285–292

Schiffer CA, Anderson KC, Bennett CL et al (2001) Platelet transfusion for patients with cancer: clinical practice guidelines of the American Society of Clinical Oncology. J Clin Oncol 19:1519–1538

(2003) Guidelines for the use of platelet transfusions. Br J Haematol 122:10–23

Werdan K, Pilz G, Bujdoso O et al (2007) Score-based immunoglobulin G therapy of patients with sepsis: the SBITS study. Crit Care Med 35:2693–2701

INIS Collaborative Group, Brocklehurst P, Farrell B et al (2011) Treatment of neonatal sepsis with intravenous immune globulin. N Engl J Med 365:1201–1211

Alejandria MM, Lansang MAD, Dans LF et al (2002) Intravenous immunoglobulin for treating sepsis, severe sepsis and septic shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1):CD001090

Burns ER, Lee V, Rubinstein A (1991) Treatment of septic thrombocytemia with immune globulin. J Clin Immunol 11:363–368

Darenberg J, Ihendyane N, Sjölin J et al (2003) Intravenous immunoglobulin G therapy in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome: a European randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 37:333–340

Hentrich M, Fehnle K, Ostermann H et al (2006) IgMA-enriched immunoglobulin in neutropenic patients with sepsis syndrome and septic shock: a randomized, controlled, multiple-center trial. Crit Care Med 34:1319–1325

Rodriguez A, Rello J, Neira J et al (2005) Effects of high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin and antibiotics on survival for severe sepsis undergoing surgery. Shock 23:298–304

Pildal J, Gøtzsche PC (2004) Polyclonal immunoglobulin for treatment of bacterial sepsis: a systematic review. Clin Infect Dis 39:38–46

Laupland KB, Kirkpatrick AW, Delaney A (2007) Polyclonal intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock in critically ill adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 35:2686–2692

Kreymann KG, de Heer G, Nierhaus A (2007) Use of polyclonal immunoglobulins as adjunctive therapy for sepsis or septic shock. Crit Care Med 35:2677–2685

Turgeon AF, Hutton B, Fergusson DA et al (2007) Meta-analysis: intravenous immunoglobulin in critically ill adult patients with sepsis. Ann Intern Med 146:193–203

Angstwurm MW, Engelmann L, Zimmermann T et al (2007) Selenium in intensive care (SIC): results of a prospective randomized, placebo-controlled, multiple-center study in patients with severe systemic inflammatory response syndrome, sepsis, and septic shock. Crit Care Med 35:118–126

Forceville X, Laviolle B, Annane D et al (2007) Effects of high doses of selenium, a sodium selenite, in septic shock: a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind, phase II study. Crit Care 11:R73

Manzanares W, Biestro A, Torre MH et al (2011) High-dose selenium reduces ventilator-associated pneumonia and illness severity in critically ill patients with systemic inflammation. Intensive Care Med 37:1120–1127

Berger MM, Eggimann P, Heyland DK et al (2006) Reduction of nosocomial pneumonia after major burns by trace element supplementation: aggregation of two randomized trials. Crit Care 10:R153

Mishra V, Baines M, Perry SE et al (2007) Effect of selenium supplementation on biochemical markers and outcome in critically ill patients. Clin Nutr 26:41–50

Andrews PJ, Avenell A, Noble DW et al (2011) Randomised trial of glutamine, selenium, or both, to supplemental parenteral nutrition for critically ill patients. BMJ 342:d1542

Wang Z, Forceville X, Van Antwerpen P et al (2009) A large-bolus injection, but not continuous infusion of sodium selenite improves outcome in peritonitis. Shock 32:140–146

Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, Recombinant Human Protein C Worldwide Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (PROWESS) Study Group et al (2001) Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 344:699–709

Abraham E, Laterre P-F, Garg F et al (2005) Drotrecogin alfa (activated) for adults with severe sepsis and a low risk of death. N Engl J Med 353:1332–1341

Nadel S, Goldstein B, Williams MD et al (2007) Drotrecogin alfa (activated) in children with severe sepsis: a multicentre phase III randomised controlled trial. Lancet 369:836–843

http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/DrugSafetyPodcasts/ucm277212.htm . Accessed 18 Dec 2011

Bernard GR, Artigas A, Brigham KL et al (1994) The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS: definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 149:818–824

Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, Thompson BT et al (2012) Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA 307:25226–25233

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network (2000) Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 342:1301–1308

Amato MB, Barbas CS, Medeiros DM et al (1998) Effect of a protective-ventilation strategy on mortality in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 338:347–354

Brochard L, Roudot-Thoraval F, Roupie E et al (1998) Tidal volume reduction for prevention of ventilator-induced lung injury in acute respiratory distress syndrome: the multicenter trail group on tidal volume reduction in ARDS. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 158:1831–1838

Brower RG, Shanholtz CB, Fessler HE et al (1999) Prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial comparing traditional versus reduced tidal volume ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome patients. Crit Care Med 27:1492–1498

Stewart TE, Meade MO, Cook DJ et al (1998) Evaluation of a ventilation strategy to prevent barotrauma in patients at high risk for acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 338:355–361

Eichacker PQ, Gerstenberger EP, Banks SM et al (2002) Meta-analysis of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome trials testing low tidal volumes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 166:1510–1514

Putensen C, Theuerkauf N, Zinserling J et al (2009) Meta-analysis: ventilation strategies and outcomes of the acute respiratory distress syndrome and acute lung injury. Ann Intern Med 151:566–576

Burns KE, Adhikari NK, Slutsky AS et al (2011) Pressure and volume limited ventilation for the ventilatory management of patients with acute lung injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 6:e14623

Tobin MJ (2000) Culmination of an era in research on the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 342:1360–1361

Marini JJ, Gattinoni L (2004) Ventilatory management of acute respiratory distress syndrome: a consensus of two. Crit Care Med 32:250–255

Hager DN, Krishnan JA, Hayden DL et al (2005) Tidal volume reduction in patients with acute lung injury when plateau pressures are not high. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 172:1241–1245

Checkley W, Brower R, Korpak A et al (2008) Effects of a clinical trial on mechanical ventilation practices in patients with acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 177:1215–1222

Kallet RH, Jasmer RM, Luce JM et al (2000) The treatment of acidosis in acute lung injury with tris-hydroxymethyl aminomethane (THAM). Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161:1149–1153

Weber T, Tschernich H, Sitzwohl C et al (2000) Tromethamine buffer modifies the depressant effect of permissive hypercapnia on myocardial contractility in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 162:1361–1365

Determann RM, Royakkers A, Wolthuis EK et al (2010) Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with conventional tidal volumes for patients without acute lung injury: a preventive randomized controlled trial. Crit Care 14:R1

Yilmaz M, Keegan MT, Iscimen R et al (2007) Toward the prevention of acute lung injury: protocol-guided limitation of large tidal volume ventilation and inappropriate transfusion. Crit Care Med 35:1660–1666

Gajic O, Dara SI, Mendez JL et al (2004) Ventilator-associated lung injury in patients without acute lung injury at the onset of mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 32:1817–1824

Schultz MJ (2008) Lung-protective mechanical ventilation with lower tidal volumes in patients not suffering from acute lung injury: a review of clinical studies. Med Sci Monit 14:RA22–RA26

Marini JJ, Ravenscraft SA (1992) Mean airway pressure: physiologic determinants and clinical importance—part 1: physiologic determinants and measurements. Crit Care Med 20:1461–1472

Gattinoni L, Marcolin R, Caspani ML et al (1985) Constant mean airway pressure with different patterns of positive pressure breathing during the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 21:275–279

Pesenti A, Marcolin R, Prato P et al (1985) Mean airway pressure vs. positive end-expiratory pressure during mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 13:34–37

Mercat A, Richard JC, Vielle B et al (2008) Positive end-expiratory pressure setting in adults with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 299:646–655

Meade MO, Cook DJ, Guyatt GH et al (2008) Ventilation strategy using low tidal volumes, recruitment maneuvers, and high positive end-expiratory pressure for acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 299:637–645

Brower RG, Lanken PN, MacIntyre N et al (2004) Higher versus lower positive end-expiratory pressures in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 351:327–336

Briel M, Meade M, Mercat A et al (2010) Higher vs lower positive end-expiratory pressure in patients with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 303:865–873

Amato MB, Barbas CS, Medeiros DM et al (1995) Beneficial effects of the “open lung approach” with low distending pressures in acute respiratory distress syndrome: a prospective randomized study on mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152:1835–1846

Gattinoni L, Caironi P, Cressoni M et al (2006) Lung recruitment in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 354:1775–1786

Pipeling MR, Fan E (2010) Therapies for refractory hypoxemia in acute respiratory distress syndrome. JAMA 304:2521–2527

Fan E, Wilcox ME, Brower RG et al (2008) Recruitment maneuvers for acute lung injury: a systematic review. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 178:1156–1163

Stocker R, Neff T, Stein S et al (1997) Prone positioning and low-volume pressure-limited ventilation improve survival in patients with severe ARDS. Chest 111:1008–1017

Lamm WJ, Graham MM, Albert RK (1994) Mechanism by which the prone position improves oxygenation in acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 150:184–193

Jolliet P, Bulpa P, Chevrolet JC (1998) Effects of the prone position on gas exchange and hemodynamics in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 26:1977–1985

Guerin C, Gaillard S, Lemasson S et al (2004) Effects of systematic prone positioning in hypoxemic acute respiratory failure: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 292:2379–2387

Taccone P, Pesenti A, Latini R et al (2009) Prone positioning in patients with moderate and severe acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 302:1977–1984

Mancebo J, Fernandez R, Blanch L et al (2006) A multicenter trial of prolonged prone ventilation in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 173:1233–1239

Gattinoni L, Tognoni G, Pesenti A et al (2001) Effect of prone positioning on the survival of patients with acute respiratory failure. N Engl J Med 345:568–573

Sud S, Friedrich JO, Taccone P et al (2010) Prone ventilation reduces mortality in patients with acute respiratory failure and severe hypoxemia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med 36:585–599

Sud S, Sud M, Friedrich JO et al (2010) High frequency oscillation in patients with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 340:c2327

Noah MA, Peek GJ, Finney SJ et al (2011) Referral to an extracorporeal membrane oxygenation center and mortality among patients with severe 2009 influenza A (H1N1). JAMA 306:1659–1668

Checkley W (2011) Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation as a first-line treatment strategy for ARDS: is the evidence sufficiently strong? JAMA 306:1703–1704

Peek GJ, Mugford M, Tiruvoipati R et al (2009) Efficacy and economic assessment of conventional ventilator support versus extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe adult respiratory failure (CESAR): a multicenter randomised controlled trial. Lancet 374:1330

Adhaikari NK, Burns KE, Friedrich JO (2007) Effect of nitric oxide on oxygenation and mortality in acute lung injury: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 334:779

Drakulovic MB, Torres A, Bauer TT et al (1999) Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial. Lancet 354:1851–1858

van Nieuwenhoven CA, Vandenbroucke-Grauls C, van Tiel FH et al (2006) Feasibility and effects of the semi-recumbent position to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomized study. Crit Care Med 34:396–402

Antonelli M, Conti G, Rocco M et al (1998) A comparison of noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation and conventional mechanical ventilation in patients with acute respiratory failure. N Engl J Med 339:429–435

Ferrer M, Esquinas A, Leon M et al (2003) Noninvasive ventilation in severe hypoxemic respiratory failure: a randomized clinical trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 168:1438–1444

Rana S, Jenad H, Gay PC et al (2006) Failure of non-invasive ventilation in patients with acute lung injury: observational cohort study. Crit Care 10:R79

Domenighetti G, Moccia A, Gayer R (2008) Observational case-control study of non-invasive ventilation in patients with ARDS. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis 69:5–10

Ely W, Baker AB, Dunagen DP (1996) Effect on the duration of mechanical ventilation of identifying patients capable of breathing spontaneously. New Engl J Med 335:1865–1869

Kress JP, Pohlman AS, O’Connor MF et al (2000) Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med 342:1471–1477

Girard TD, Kress JP, Fuchs BD et al (2008) Efficacy and safety of a paired sedation and ventilator weaning protocol for mechanically ventilated patients in intensive care (awakening and breathing controlled trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 371:126–134

Iberti TJ, Fischer EP, Leibowitz AB et al (1990) A multicenter study of physicians’ knowledge of the pulmonary artery catheter. JAMA 264:2928–2932

Al-Kharrat T, Zarich S, Amoateng-Adjepong Y et al (1999) Analysis of observer variability in measurement of pulmonary artery occlusion pressures. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160:415–420

Connors AF Jr, McCaffree DR, Gray BA (1983) Evaluation of right-heart catheterization in the critically ill patient without acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 308:263–267

Osman D, Ridel C, Ray P et al (2007) Cardiac filling pressures are not appropriate to predict hemodynamic response to volume challenge. Crit Care Med 35:64–68

Richard C, Warszawski J, Anguel N et al (2003) Early use of the pulmonary artery catheter and outcomes in patients with shock and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 290:2713–2720

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network, Wheeler AP, Bernard GR et al (2006) Pulmonary-artery versus central venous catheter to guide treatment of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 354:2213–2224

Sandham JD, Hull RD, Brant RF et al (2003) A randomized, controlled trial of the use of pulmonary-artery catheters in high-risk surgical patients. N Engl J Med 348:5–14

Shah MR, Hasselblad V, Stevenson LW et al (2005) Impact of the pulmonary artery catheter in critically ill patients: meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. JAMA 294:1664–1670

Harvey S, Harrison DA, Singer M et al (2005) Assessment of the clinical effectiveness of pulmonary artery catheters in management of patients in intensive care (PAC-man): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 366:472–477

Harvey S, Young D, Brampton W et al (2006) Pulmonary artery catheters for adult patients in intensive care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3):CD003408

Sibbald WJ, Short AK, Warshawski FJ et al (1985) Thermal dye measurements of extravascular lung water in critically ill patients: intravascular starling forces and extravascular lung water in the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Chest 87:585–592

Martin GS, Mangialardi RJ, Wheeler AP et al (2002) Albumin and furosemide therapy in hypoproteinemic patients with acute lung injury. Crit Care Med 30:2175–2182

Mitchell JP, Schuller D, Calandrino FS et al (1992) Improved outcome based on fluid management in critically ill patients requiring pulmonary artery catheterization. Am Rev Respir Dis 145:990–998

Schuller D, Mitchell JP, Calandrino FS et al (1991) Fluid balance during pulmonary edema: is fluid gain a marker or a cause of poor outcome? Chest 100:1068–1075

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network, Wiedemann HP, Wheeler AP et al (2006) Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 354:2564–2575

Perkins GD, McAuley DF, Thickett DR et al (2006) The β-agonist lung injury trial (BALTI): a randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 173:281–287

Matthay MA, Brower RG, Carson S et al (2011) Randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial of an aerolosolized β-2 agonist for treatment of acute lung injury. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 184:561–568

Gao Smith F, Perkins DG, Gates S et al (2012) Effect of intravenous β-2 agonist treatment on clinical outcomes in acute respiratory distress syndrome (BALTI-2): a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 379:229–235

Marx WH, DeMaintenon NL, Mooney KF et al (1999) Cost reduction and outcome improvement in the intensive care unit. J Trauma 46:625–629 (discussion 629–630)

MacLaren R, Plamondon JM, Ramsay KB et al (2000) A prospective evaluation of empiric versus protocol-based sedation and analgesia. Pharmacotherapy 20:662–672

Brook AD, Ahrens TS, Schaiff R et al (1999) Effect of a nursing-implemented sedation protocol on the duration of mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 27:2609–2615

Shehabi Y, Bellomo R, Reade MC (2012) Early intensive care sedation predicts long-term mortality in ventilated critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 186:724–731

Strom T, Martinussen T, Toft P (2010) A protocol of no sedation for critically ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a randomised trial. Lancet 375:475–480

Devlin JW, Boleski G, Mlynarek M et al (1999) Motor activity assessment scale: a valid and reliable sedation scale for use with mechanically ventilated patients in an adult surgical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 27:1271–1275

De Jonghe B, Cook D, Sharshar T et al (1998) Groupe de réflexion et d’étude sur les neuromyopathies en réanimation: acquired neuromuscular disorders in critically ill patients: a systematic review. Intensive Care Med 24:1242–1250

Kollef MH, Levy NT, Ahrens TS et al (1998) The use of continuous IV sedation is associated with prolongation of mechanical ventilation. Chest 114:541–548

Mehta S, Burry L, Cook D et al (2012) SLEAP Investigators; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group:  Daily sedation interruption in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients cared for with a sedation protocol: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 308:1985–1992

Kress JP, Vinayak AG, Levitt J et al (2007) Daily sedative interruption in mechanically ventilated patients at risk for coronary artery disease. Crit Care Med 35:365–371

Schweickert WD, Pohlman MC, Pohlman AS et al (2009) Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 373:1874–1882

Klessig HT, Geiger HJ, Murray MJ et al (1992) A national survey on the practice patterns of anesthesiologist intensivists in the use of muscle relaxants. Crit Care Med 20:1341–1345

Murray MJ, Cowen J, DeBlock H et al (2002) Clinical practice guidelines for sustained neuromuscular blockade in the adult critically ill patient. Crit Care Med 30:142–156

Hansen-Flaschen JH, Brazinsky S, Basile C et al (1991) Use of sedating drugs and neuromuscular blocking agents in patients requiring mechanical ventilation for respiratory failure: a national survey. JAMA 266:2870–2875

Freebairn RC, Derrick J, Gomersall CD et al (1997) Oxygen delivery, oxygen consumption, and gastric intramucosal pH are not improved by a computer-controlled, closed-loop, vecuronium infusion in severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 25:72–77

Papazian L, Forel JM, Gacouin A et al (2010) Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 363:1107–1116

Forel JM, Roch A, Marin V et al (2006) Neuromuscular blocking agents decrease inflammatory response in patients presenting with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 34:2749–2757

Shapiro BA, Warren J, Egol AB et al (1995) Practice parameters for sustained neuromuscular blockade in the adult critically ill patient: an executive summary. Crit Care Med 23:1601–1605

Meyer KC, Prielipp RC, Grossman JE et al (1994) Prolonged weakness after infusion of atracurium in two intensive care unit patients. Anesth Analg 78:772–774

Lacomis D, Petrella JT, Giuliani MJ (1998) Causes of neuromuscular weakness in the intensive care unit: a study of ninety-two patients. Muscle Nerve 21:610–617

Rudis MI, Sikora CA, Angus E et al (1997) A prospective, randomized, controlled evaluation of peripheral nerve stimulation versus standard clinical dosing of neuromuscular blocking agents in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 25:575–583

Frankel H, Jeng J, Tilly E et al (1996) The impact of implementation of neuromuscular blockade monitoring standards in a surgical intensive care unit. Am Surg 62:503–506

Strange C, Vaughan L, Franklin C et al (1997) Comparison of train-of-four and best clinical assessment during continuous paralysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 156:1556–1561

van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F et al (2001) Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 345:1359–1367

van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G et al (2006) Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med 354:449–461

Arabi YM, Dabbagh OC, Tamim HM (2008) Intensive versus conventional insulin therapy: a randomized controlled trial in medical and surgical critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 36:3190–3197

De La Rosa GDC, Hernando Donado J, Restrepo AH (2008) Strict glycaemic control in patients hospitalised in a mixed medical and surgical intensive care unit: a randomised clinical trial. Critical Care 12:R120

COIITSS Study Investigators, Annane D, Cariou A et al (2012) Corticosteroid treatment and intensive insulin therapy for septic shock in adults: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 303:341–348

The NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators (2009) Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 360:1283–1297

Preiser JC, Devos P, Ruiz-Santana S (2009) A prospective randomised multi-centre controlled trial on tight glucose control by intensive insulin therapy in adult intensive care units: the Glucontrol study. Intensive Care Med 35:1738–1748

Wiener RS, Wiener DC, Larson RJ (2008) Benefits and risks of tight glucose control in critically ill adults: a meta-analysis. JAMA 300:933–936

Griesdale DEG, de Souza RJ, van Dam RM et al (2009) Intensive insulin therapy and mortality among critically ill patients: a meta-analysis including NICE-SUGAR study data. CMAJ 180:821–827

Marik PE, Preiser JC (2010) Toward understanding tight glycemic control in the ICU: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Chest 137:544–551

Friedrich JO, Chant C, Adhikari NKJ (2010) Does intensive insulin therapy really reduce mortality in critically ill surgical patients? A reanalysis of meta-analytic data. Crit Care 14:324–330

Kansagara D, Fu R, Freeman M et al (2011) Intensive insulin therapy in hospitalized patients: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 154:268–282

Peberdy MA, Callaway CW, Neumar RW et al (2010) Part 9: post-cardiac arrest care: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation 122:S768–S786

Qaseem A, Humphrey LL, Chou R et al (2011) Use of intensive insulin therapy for the management of glycemic control in hospitalized patients: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 154:260–267

Moghissi ES, Korytkowski MT, Dinardo M et al (2009) American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American Diabetes Association consensus statement on inpatient glycemic control. Diabetes Care 32:1119–1131

Jacobi J, Bircher N, Krinsley J et al (2012) Guidelines for the use of insulin infusion for the management of hyperglycemia in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 40:3251–3276

Kauffmann RM, Hayes RM, Jenkins JM et al (2011) Provision of balanced nutrition protects against hypoglycemia in the critically ill surgical patient. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 35:686–694

Egi M, Bellomo R, Stachowski E et al (2006) Variability in blood glucose concentrations and short-term mortality in critically ill patients. Anesthesiology 105:233–234

Krinsley JS (2008) Glycemic variability: a strong independent predictor of mortality in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 36:3008–3013

Mackenzie IMJ, Whitehouse T, Nightingale PG (2011) The metrics of glycaemic control in critical care. Intensive Care Med 37:435–443

Egi M, Bellomo R, Stachowski E (2008) Blood glucose concentration and outcome of critical illness: the impact of diabetes. Crit Care Med 36:2249–2255

Krinsley JS (2009) Glycemic variability and mortality in critically ill patients: the impact of diabetes. J Diabetes Sci Technol 3:1292–1301

Nichols JH (2002) Bedside testing, glucose monitoring, and diabetes management. In: Kost GJ (ed) Principles of point of care testing. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia

Kanji S, Buffie J, Hutton B et al (2005) Reliability of point-of-care testing for glucose measurement in critically ill adults. Crit Care Med 33:2778–2785

Hoedemaekers CW, Klein Gunnewiek JM, Prinsen MA et al (2008) Accuracy of bedside glucose measurement from three glucometers in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 36:3062–3066

Khan AI, Vasquez Y, Gray J et al (2006) The variability of results between point-of-care testing glucose meters and the central laboratory analyzer. Arch Pathol Lab Med 130:1527–1532

Desachy A, Vuagnat AC, Ghazali AD et al (2008) Accuracy of bedside glucometry in critically ill patients: influence of clinical characteristics and perfusion index. Mayo Clin Proc 83:400–405

Fekih Hassen M, Ayed S, Gharbi R et al (2010) Bedside capillary blood glucose measurements in critically ill patients: influence of catecholamine therapy. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 87:87–91

Wilson M, Weinreb J, Soo Hoo GW (2007) Intensive insulin therapy in critical care: a review of a dozen protocols. Diabetes Care 30:1005–1011

Newton CA, Smiley D, Bode BW et al (2010) A comparison study of continuous insulin infusion protocols in the medical intensive care unit: computer-guided vs. standard column-based algorithms. J Hosp Med 5:432–437

Dortch MJ, Mowery NT, Ozdas A et al (2008) A computerized insulin infusion titration protocol improves glucose control with less hypoglycemia compared to a manual titration protocol in a trauma intensive care unit. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 32:18–27

Mauritz W, Sporn P, Schindler I et al (1986) Acute renal failure in abdominal infection: comparison of hemodialysis and continuous arteriovenous and continuous hemofiltration. Anasth Intensivther Nortfallmed 21:212–217

Bartlett RH, Mault JR, Dechert RE et al (1986) Continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration: improved survival in surgical acute renal failure. Surgery 100:400–408

Kierdorf H (1991) Continuous versus intermittent treatment: clinical results in acute renal failure. Contrib Nephrol 93:1–12

Bellomo R, Mansfield D, Rumble S et al (1992) Acute renal failure in critical illness: conventional dialysis versus continuous hemodiafiltration. Am Soc Artif Intern Organs J 38:M654–M657

Bellomo R, Farmer M, Parkin G et al (1995) Severe acute renal failure: a comparison of acute continuous hemodiafiltration and conventional dialytic therapy. Nephron 71:59–64

Kruczinski K, Irvine-Bird K, Toffelmire EB et al (1993) A comparison of continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration and intermittent hemodialysis in acute renal failure patients in intensive care unit. Am Soc Artif Intern Organs J 38:M778–M781

Van Bommel EH, Bouvy ND, Sob KL et al (1995) Acute dialytic support for the critically ill: intermittent hemodialysis versus continuous arteriovenous hemodiafiltration. Am J Nephrol 15:192–200

Guerin C, Girard R, Selli JM et al (2002) Intermittent versus continuous renal replacement therapy for acute renal failure in intensive care units: results from a multicenter prospective epidemiological survey. Intensive Care Med 28:1411–1418

Kellum JA, Angus DC, Johnson JP et al (2002) Continuous versus intermittent renal replacement therapy: a meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med 28:29–37

Tonelli M, Manns B, Feller-Kopman D (2002) Acute renal failure in the intensive care unit: a systematic review of the impact of dialytic modality on mortality and renal recovery. Am J Kidney Dis 40:875–885

Mehta RL, McDonald B, Gabbai FB et al (2001) A randomized clinical trial of continuous versus intermittent dialysis for acute renal failure. Kidney Int 60:1154–1163

Gasparovic V, Filipovic-Greie I, Merkler M et al (2003) Continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) or intermittent hemodialysis (IHD)—what is the procedure of choice in critically ill patients? Ren Fail 25:855–862

Augustine JJ, Sandy D, Seifert TH et al (2004) A randomized controlled trial comparing intermittent with continuous dialysis in patients with ARF. Am J Kidney Dis 44:1000–1007

Uehlinger DE, Jakob SM, Ferrari P et al (2005) Comparison of continuous and intermittent renal replacement therapy for acute renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transpl 20:1630–1637

Vinsonneau C, Camus C, Combes A et al (2006) Continuous venovenous haemodiafiltration versus intermittent haemodialysis for acute renal failure in patients with multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome: a multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 368:379–385

John S, Griesbach D, Baumgärtel M et al (2001) Effects of continuous haemofiltration vs intermittent haemodialysis on systemic haemodynamics and splanchnic regional perfusion in septic shock patients: a prospective, randomized clinical trial. Nephrol Dial Transpl 16:320–327

Misset B, Timsit JF, Chevret S et al (1996) A randomized cross-over comparison of the hemodynamic response to intermittent hemodialysis and continuous hemofiltration in ICU patients with acute renal failure. Intensive Care Med 22:742–746

Ronco C, Bellomo R, Homel P et al (2000) Effects of different doses in continuous venovenous haemofiltration on outcomes of acute renal failure: a prospective randomized trial. Lancet 356:26–30

Bouman CS, Oudemans-Van Straaten HM, Tijssen JG et al (2002) Effects of early high-volume continuous venovenous hemofiltration on survival and recovery of renal function in intensive care patients with acute renal failure: a prospective, randomized trial. Crit Care Med 30:2205–2211

The VA/NIH Acute Renal Failure Trial Network (2008) Intensity of renal support in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. N Engl J Med 359:7–20

The RENAL Replacement Therapy Study Investigators (2009) Intensity of continuous renal-replacement therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 361:1627–1638

Cooper DJ, Walley KR, Wiggs BR et al (1990) Bicarbonate does not improve hemodynamics in critically ill patients who have lactic acidosis: a prospective, controlled clinical study. Ann Intern Med 112:492–498

Mathieu D, Neviere R, Billard V et al (1991) Effects of bicarbonate therapy on hemodynamics and tissue oxygenation in patients with lactic acidosis: a prospective, controlled clinical study. Crit Care Med 19:1352–1356

Cade JF (1982) High risk of the critically ill for venous thromboembolism. Crit Care Med 10:448–450

Halkin H, Goldberg J, Modal M et al (1982) Reduction in mortality in general medical in-patients by low-dose heparin prophylaxis. Ann Intern Med 96:561–565

Pingleton SK, Bone RC, Pingleton WW et al (1981) Prevention of pulmonary emboli in a respiratory intensive care unit. Chest 79:647–650

Belch JJ, Lowe DO, Ward AG et al (1981) Prevention of deep vein thrombosis in medical patients by low-dose heparin. Scott Med J 26:115–117

Gardlund B (1996) Randomized, controlled trial of low-dose heparin for prevention of fatal pulmonary embolism in patients with infectious diseases: the Heparin Prophylaxis Study Group. Lancet 347:1357–1361

Samama MM, Cohen AT, Darmon JY et al (1999) A comparison of enoxaparin with placebo for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in acutely ill medical patients. N Engl J Med 341:793–800

Dahan R, Houlbert D, Caulin C et al (1986) Prevention of deep vein thrombosis in elderly medical in-patients by a low molecular weight heparin: a randomized double-blind trial. Haemostasis 16:159–164

Hirsch DR, Ingenito EP, Goldhaber SZ (1995) Prevalence of deep venous thrombosis among patients in medical intensive care. JAMA 274:335–337

Fraisse F, Holzapfel L, Couland JM et al (2000) Nadroparin in the prevention of deep vein thrombosis in acute decompensated COPD: the Association of Non-University Affiliated Intensive Care Specialist Physicians of France. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 161:1109–1114

Kupfer Y, Anwar J, Seneviratne C et al (1999) Prophylaxis with subcutaneous heparin significantly reduces the incidence of deep venous thrombophlebitis in the critically ill. Abstr Am J Crit Care Med 159(Suppl):A519

Geerts W, Cook D, Shelby R et al (2002) Venous thromboembolism and its prevention in critical care. J Crit Care 17:95–104

Attia J, Ray JG, Cook DJ et al (2001) Deep vein thrombosis and its prevention in critically ill adults. Arch Intern Med 161:1268–1279

PROTECT Investigators for the Canadian Critical Care Trials Group and the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group, Cook D, Meade M et al (2011) Dalteparin versus unfractionated heparin in critically ill patients. New Engl J Med 364:1305–1314

King CS, Holley AB, Jackson JF et al (2007) Twice vs three times daily heparin dosing for thromboembolism prophylaxis in the general medical population: a meta-analysis. Chest 131:507–516

Douketis J, Cook D, Meade M et al (2008) Prophylaxis against deep vein thrombosis in critically ill patients with severe renal insufficiency with the low-molecular-weight heparin dalteparin: an assessment of safety and pharmacodynamics: the DIRECT study. Arch Intern Med 168:1805–1812

Vanek VW (1998) Meta-analysis of effectiveness of intermittent pneumatic compression devices with a comparison of thigh-high to knee-high sleeves. Am Surg 64:1050–1058

Turpie AG, Hirsh J, Gent M et al (1989) Prevention of deep vein thrombosis in potential neurosurgical patients: a randomized trial comparing graduated compression stockings alone or graduated compression stockings plus intermittent pneumatic compression with control. Arch Intern Med 149:679–681

Agu O, Hamilton G, Baker D (1999) Graduated compression stocking in the prevention of venous thromboembolism. Br J Surg 86:992–1004

Kakkos SK, Caprini JA, Geroulakos G et al (2008) Combined intermittent pneumatic leg compression and pharmacological prophylaxis for prevention of venous thromboembolism in high-risk patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD005258

German Hip Arthroplasty Trial Group (GHAT) (1992) Prevention of deep vein thrombosis with low molecular-weight heparin in patients undergoing total hip replacement: a randomized trial. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 111:110–120

Colwell CW, Spiro TE, Trowbridge AA et al (1994) Use of enoxaparin, a low-molecular-weight heparin, and unfractionated heparin for the prevention of deep venous thrombosis after elective hip replacement: a clinical trial comparing efficacy and safety. J Bone Joint Surg Am 76:3–14

Geerts WH, Jay RM, Code KI et al (1996) A comparison of low-dose heparin with low-molecular-weight heparin as prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after major trauma. N Engl J Med 335:701–707

Guyatt GH, Akl EA, Crowther M et al (2012) Executive summary: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 141(Suppl 2):7S–47S

Basso N, Bagarani M, Materia A et al (1981) Cimetidine and antacid prophylaxis of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in high risk patients. Am J Surg 141:339–342

Bresalier RS, Grendell JH, Cello JP et al (1987) Sucralfate versus titrated antacid for the prevention of acute stress-related gastrointestinal hemorrhage in critically ill patients. Am J Med 83:110–116

Poleski MH, Spanier AH (1986) Cimetidine versus antacids in the prevention of stress erosions in critically ill patients. Am J Gastroenterol 81:107–111

Stothert JC, Simonowitz DA, Dellinger EP et al (1980) Randomized prospective evaluation of cimetidine and antacid control of gastric pH in the critically ill. Ann Surg 192:169–174

Cook DJ, Fuller HD, Guyatt GH et al (1994) Risk factors for gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 330:377–381

Schuster DP, Rowley H, Feinstein S et al (1984) Prospective evaluation of the risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding after admission to a medical intensive care unit. Am J Med 76:623–629

Kahn JM, Doctor JN, Rubenfeld GD (2006) Stress ulcer prophylaxis in mechanically ventilated patients: integrating evidence and judgment using a decision analysis. Intensive Care Med 32:1151–1158

Cook DJ, Reeve BK, Guyatt GH et al (1996) Stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: resolving discordant meta-analyses. JAMA 275:308–314

Marik P, Vasu T, Hirani A et al (2010) Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the new millennium: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 38:222–228

Howell MD, Novack C, Grgurich P et al (2010) Iatrogenic gastric acid suppression and the risk of nosocomial Clostridium difficile infection. Arch Intern Med 170:784–790

Leonard J, Marshall JK, Moayyedi P (2007) Systematic review of the risk of enteric infection in patients taking acid supression. Am J Gastroenterol 102:2047–2056

Cook D, Guyatt G, Marshall J et al (1998) A comparison of sucralfate and ranitidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med 338:791–797

Lin P, Chang C, Hsu P et al (2010) The efficacy and safety of proton pump inhibitors vs histamine-2 receptor antagonists for stress ulcer bleeding prophylaxis among critical care patients: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 38:1197–1205

Pongprasobchai S, Kridkratoke S, Nopmaneejumruslers C (2009) Proton pump inhibitors for the prevention of stress-related mucosal disease in critically-ill patients: a meta-analysis. J Med Assoc Thai 92:632–637

Alhazzani W, Alshahrani M, Moayyedi P et al (2012) Stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: review of the evidence. Pol Arch Med Wewn 122:107–114

Moore EE, Jones TN (1986) Benefits of immediate jejunostomy feeding after major abdominal trauma: a prospective, randomized study. J Trauma 26:874–881

Chiarelli A, Enzi G, Casadei A et al (1990) Very early nutrition supplementation in burned patients. Am J Clin Nutr 51:1035–1039

Eyer SD, Micon LT, Konstantinides FN et al (1993) Early enteral feeding does not attenuate metabolic response after blunt trauma. J Trauma 34:639–643

Chuntrasakul C, Siltharm S, Chinswangwatanakul V et al (1996) Early nutritional support in severe traumatic patients. J Med Assoc Thai 79:21–26

Singh G, Ram RP, Khanna SK (1998) Early postoperative enteral feeding in patients with nontraumatic intestinal perforation and peritonitis. J Am Coll Surg 187:142–146

Kompan L, Kremzar B, Gadzijev E et al (1999) Effects of early enteral nutrition on intestinal permeability and the development of multiple organ failure after multiple injury. Intensive Care Med 25:157–161

Minard G, Kudsk KA, Melton S et al (2000) Early versus delayed feeding with an immune-enhancing diet in patients with severe head injuries. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 24:145–149

Pupelis G, Selga G, Austrums E et al (2001) Jejunal feeding, even when instituted late, improves outcomes in patients with severe pancreatitis and peritonitis. Nutrition 17:91–94

Kompan L, Vidmar G, Spindler-Vesel A et al (2004) Is early enteral nutrition a risk factor for gastric intolerance and pneumonia? Clin Nutr 23:527–532

Nguyen NQ, Fraser RJ, Bryant LK et al (2008) The impact of delaying enteral feeding on gastric emptying, plasma cholecystokinin, and peptide YY concentrations in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 36:1469–1474

Marik PE, Zaloga GP (2001) Early enteral nutrition in acutely ill patients: a systematic review. Crit Care Med 29:2264–2270

Heyland DK, Dhaliwal R, Drover JW et al (2003) Canadian clinical practice guidelines for nutrition support in mechanically ventilated, critically ill adult patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 27:355–373

Doig GS, Heighes PT, Simpson F et al (2009) Early enteral nutrition, provided within 24 hours of injury or intensive care unit admission, significantly reduces mortality in critically ill patients: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Intensive Care Med 35:2018–2027

Taylor SJ, Fettes SB, Jewkes C et al (1999) Prospective, randomized, controlled trial to determine the effect of early enhanced enteral nutrition on clinical outcome in mechanically ventilated patients suffering head injury. Crit Care Med 27:2525–2531

Ibrahim EH, Mehringer L, Prentice D et al (2002) Early versus late enteral feeding of mechanically ventilated patients: results of a clinical trial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 26:174–181

Rice TW, Mogan S, Hays MA et al (2011) Randomized trial of initial trophic versus full-energy enteral nutrition in mechanically ventilated patients with acute respiratory failure. Crit Care Med 39:967–974

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network, Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT et al (2012) Trophic vs full enteral feeding in patients with acute lung injury: the EDEN randomized trial. JAMA 137:795–803

Arabi YM, Tamim HM, Dhar GS et al (2011) Permissive underfeeding and intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 93:569–577

Cerra FB, McPherson JP, Konstantinides FN et al (1988) Enteral nutrition does not prevent multiple organ failure syndrome (MOFS) after sepsis. Surgery 104:727–733

Heyland DK, MacDonald S, Keefe L et al (1998) Total parenteral nutrition in the critically ill patient: a meta-analysis. JAMA 280:2013–2019

Braunschweig CL, Levy P, Sheean PM et al (2001) Enteral compared with parenteral nutrition: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 74:534–542

Gramlich L, Kichian K, Pinilla J et al (2004) Does enteral nutrition compared to parenteral nutrition result in better outcomes in critically ill adult patients? A systematic review of the literature. Nutrition 20:843–848

Dhaliwal R, Jurewitsch B, Harrietha D et al (2004) Combination enteral and parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: harmful or beneficial? A systematic review of the evidence. Intensive Care Med 30:1666–1671

Peter JV, Moran JL, Phillips-Hughes J (2005) A meta-analysis of treatment outcomes of early enteral versus early parenteral nutrition in hospitalized patients. Crit Care Med 33:213–220

Simpson F, Doig GS (2005) Parenteral vs. enteral nutrition in the critically ill patient: a meta-analysis of trials using the intention to treat principle. Intensive Care Med 31:12–23

Koretz RL, Avenell A, Lipman TO et al (2007) Does enteral nutrition affect clinical outcome? A systematic review of the randomized trials. Am J Gastroenterol 102:412–429 (quiz 468)

Casaer MP, Mesotten D, Hermans G et al (2011) Early versus late parenteral nutrition in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med 365:506–517

Beale RJ, Bryg DJ, Bihari DJ (1999) Immunonutrition in the critically ill: a systematic review of clinical outcome. Crit Care Med 27:2799–2805

Heyland DK, Novak F, Drover JW et al (2001) Should immunonutrition become routine in critically ill patients? A systematic review of the evidence. JAMA 286:944–953

Montejo JC, Zarazaga A, Lopez-Martinez J et al (2003) Immunonutrition in the intensive care unit: a systematic review and consensus statement. Clin Nutr 22:221–233

Marik PE, Zaloga GP (2008) Immunonutrition in critically ill patients: a systematic review and analysis of the literature. Intensive Care Med 34:1980–1990

Kieft H, Roos AN, van Drunen JD et al (2005) Clinical outcome of immunonutrition in a heterogeneous intensive care population. Intensive Care Med 31:524–532

Tugrul S, Ozcan PE, Akinci IO et al (2004) The effects of immunonutrition on the development of nosocomial infections and on clinical outcome in critically ill patients [in Turkish]. Ulus Travma Acil Cerrahi Derg 10:89–96

Radrizzani D, Bertolini G, Facchini R et al (2006) Early enteral immunonutrition vs. parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients without severe sepsis: a randomized clinical trial. Intensive Care Med 32:1191–1198

Bertolini G, Iapichino G, Radrizzani D et al (2003) Early enteral immunonutrition in patients with severe sepsis: results of an interim analysis of a randomized multicentre clinical trial. Intensive Care Med 29:834–840

Suchner U, Kuhn KS, Furst P (2000) The scientific basis of immunonutrition. Proc Nutr Soc 59:553–563

Santora R, Kozar RA (2010) Molecular mechanisms of pharmaconutrients. J Surg Res 161:288–294

Bower RH, Cerra FB, Bershadsky B et al (1995) Early enteral administration of a formula (Impact) supplemented with arginine, nucleotides, and fish oil in intensive care unit patients: results of a multicenter, prospective, randomized, clinical trial. Crit Care Med 23:436–449

Galban C, Montejo JC, Mesejo A et al (2000) An immune-enhancing enteral diet reduces mortality rate and episodes of bacteremia in septic intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 28:643–648

Caparros T, Lopez J, Grau T (2001) Early enteral nutrition in critically ill patients with a high-protein diet enriched with arginine, fiber, and antioxidants compared with a standard high-protein diet: the effect on nosocomial infections and outcome. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 25:299–308

Preiser JC, Berre PJ, Van Gossum A et al (2001) Metabolic effects of arginine addition to the enteral feeding of critically ill patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 25:182–187

Novak F, Heyland DK, Avenell A et al (2002) Glutamine supplementation in serious illness: a systematic review of the evidence. Crit Care Med 30:2022–2029

Avenell A (2006) Glutamine in critical care: current evidence from systematic reviews. Proc Nutr Soc 65:236–241

Jiang H, Chen W, Hu W et al (2009) The impact of glutamine-enhanced enteral nutrition on clinical outcome of patients with critical illness: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials (in Chinese). Zhonghua Shao Shang Za Zhi 25:325–330

Avenell A (2009) Hot topics in parenteral nutrition: current evidence and ongoing trials on the use of glutamine in critically ill patients and patients undergoing surgery. Proc Nutr Soc 68:261–268

Tian H, Wang KF, Wu TJ (2006) Effect of total parenteral nutrition with supplementation of glutamine on the plasma diamine oxidase activity and d-lactate content in patients with multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (in Chinese). Zhongguo Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Yi Xue 18:616–618

Cai GL, Yan J, Yu YH et al (2006) Influence of glutamine and growth hormone intensified nutrition support on immunomodulation in critically ill elderly patients (in Chinese). Zhongguo Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Yi Xue 18:595–598

Grau T, Bonet A, Minambres E et al (2011) The effect of L-alanyl-l-glutamine dipeptide supplemented total parenteral nutrition on infectious morbidity and insulin sensitivity in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 39:1263–1268

Wernerman J, Kirketeig T, Andersson B et al (2011) Scandinavian glutamine trial: a pragmatic multi-centre randomised clinical trial of intensive care unit patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 55:812–818

Fuentes-Orozco C, Anaya-Prado R, Gonzalez-Ojeda A et al (2004) L-alanyl-l-glutamine-supplemented parenteral nutrition improves infectious morbidity in secondary peritonitis. Clin Nutr 23:13–21

Beale RJ, Sherry T, Lei K et al (2008) Early enteral supplementation with key pharmaconutrients improves sequential organ failure assessment score in critically ill patients with sepsis: outcome of a randomized, controlled, double-blind trial. Crit Care Med 36:131–144

Trial of glutamine and antioxidant supplementation in critically ill patients (REDOXS). http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00133978?term=NCT00133978&rank=1

Pontes-Arruda A, Demichele S, Seth A et al (2008) The use of an inflammation-modulating diet in patients with acute lung injury or acute respiratory distress syndrome: a meta-analysis of outcome data. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 32:596–605

Pontes-Arruda A, Aragao AM, Albuquerque JD (2006) Effects of enteral feeding with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidants in mechanically ventilated patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 34:2325–2333

Gadek JE, DeMichele SJ, Karlstad MD et al (1999) Effect of enteral feeding with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidants in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Enteral Nutrition in ARDS Study Group. Crit Care Med 27:1409–1420

Singer P, Theilla M, Fisher H et al (2006) Benefit of an enteral diet enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid and gamma-linolenic acid in ventilated patients with acute lung injury. Crit Care Med 34:1033–1038

Pontes-Arruda A, Martins LF, de Lima SM et al (2011) Enteral nutrition with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid and antioxidants in the early treatment of sepsis: Results from a multicenter, prospective, randomized, double-blinded, controlled study: The INTERSEPT study. Crit Care 15:R144

Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT et al (2011) Enteral omega-3 fatty acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidant supplementation in acute lung injury. JAMA 306:1574–1581

Stapleton RD, Martin TR, Weiss NS et al (2011) A phase II randomized placebo-controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acids for the treatment of acute lung injury. Crit Care Med 39:1655–1662

Grau-Carmona T, Moran-Garcia V, Garcia-de-Lorenzo A et al (2011) Effect of an enteral diet enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid and anti-oxidants on the outcome of mechanically ventilated, critically ill, septic patients. Clin Nutr 30:578–584

Friesecke S, Lotze C, Kohler J et al (2008) Fish oil supplementation in the parenteral nutrition of critically ill medical patients: a randomised controlled trial. Intensive Care Med 34:1411–1420

Barbosa VM, Miles EA, Calhau C et al (2010) Effects of a fish oil containing lipid emulsion on plasma phospholipid fatty acids, inflammatory markers, and clinical outcomes in septic patients: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. Crit Care 14:R5

Gupta A, Govil D, Bhatnagar S et al (2011) Efficacy and safety of parenteral omega 3 fatty acids in ventilated patients with acute lung injury. Indian J Crit Care Med 15:108–113

Thompson BT, Cox PN, Antonelli M et al (2004) Challenges in end-of-life care in the ICU: statement of the 5th international consensus conference in critical care: Brussels, Belgium, April 2003: executive summary. Crit Care Med 32:1781–1784

Sprung CL, Cohen SL, Sjokvist P et al (2003) End of life practices in European intensive care units: the Ethicus Study. JAMA 290:790–797

White DB, Engelberg RA, Wenrich MD et al (2010) The language of prognostication in the intensive care units. Med Decis Making 30:76–83

Nelson JE, Bassett R, Boss RD et al (2010) Models for structuring a clinical initiative to enhance palliative care in the intensive care unit: a report from the IPAL-ICU Project (improving palliative care in the ICU). Crit Care Med 38:1765–1772

Evans LR, Boyd EA, Malvar G et al (2009) Surrogate decision-makers’ perspectives on discussing prognosis in the face of uncertainty. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 179:48–53

Lee Char SJ, Evans LR, Malvar GL et al (2010) A randomized trial of two methods to disclose prognosis to surrogate decision makers in intensive care units. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 182:905–909

Azoulay E, Metnizt B, Sprung CL et al (2009) End-of-life practices in 282 intensive care units: data from the SAPS 3 database. Int Care Med 35:623–630

Azoulay E, Timsit JF, Sprung CL et al (2009) Prevalence and factors of intensive care unit conflicts: the Conflicus study. A J Resp Crit Care Med 180:854–860

Bertolini G, Boffelli S, Malacarne P et al (2010) End-of-life decision making and quality of ICU performance: an observational study in 84 Italian units. Int Care Med 36:1495–1504

Detering KM, Hancock AD, Reade MC et al (2010) The impact of advance care planning on end of life care in elderly patients: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 340:c1345

Marchare Delgado E, Callahan A, Paganelli G et al (2009) Multidisciplinary family meetings in the ICU facilitate end-of-life decision making. Am J Hosp Palliat Care 26:295–302

Lautrette A, Darmon M, Megarbane B et al (2007) A communication strategy and brochure for relatives of patients dying in the ICU. N Engl J Med 356:469–478

Norton SA, Hogan LA, Holloway RG et al (2007) Proactive palliative care in the medical intensive care unit: effect on length of stay for selected high-risk patients. Crit Care Med 35:1530–1535

Scheunemann LP, McDevitt M, Carson SS et al (2011) Randomized controlled trials of interventions to improve communication in intensive care: a systematic review. Chest 139:543–554

Davidson J, Powers K, Hedayat K et al (2007) Clinical practice guidelines for support of the family in the patient-centered intensive care unit: american College of Critical Care Medicine Task Force. Crit Care Med 35:605–622

Curtis JR, Treece PD, Nielsen EL et al (2008) Integrating palliative and critical care: evaluation of a quality-improvement intervention. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 178:269–275

Odetola FO, Gebremariam A, Freed GL (2007) Patient and hospital correlates of clinical outcomes and resource utilization in severe pediatric sepsis. Pediatrics 119:487–494

Typpo KV, Petersen NJ, Hallman DM et al (2009) Day 1 multiple organ dysfunction syndrome is associated with poor functional outcome and mortality in the pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatr Crit Care Med 10:562–570

Kissoon N, Carcillo J, Espinosa V et al (2011) Global sepsis initiative. Pediatr Crit Care Med 12:494–503

Goldstein B, Giroir B, Randolph A (2005) International pediatric sepsis consensus conference: definitions for sepsis and organ dysfunction in pediatrics. Pediatr Crit Care Med 6:2–8

Kuch BA, Carcillo JA, Han YY et al (2005) Definitions of pediatric septic shock. Pediatr Crit Care Med 6:501

Cam BV, Tuan DT, Fonsmark L et al (2002) Randomized comparison of oxygen mask treatment vs nasal continuous positive airway pressure in dengue shock syndrome with acute respiratory failure. J Trop Pediatr 48:335–339

Duke T, Frank D, Mgone J (2000) Hypoxaemia in children with severe pneumonia in Papua New Guinea. Int J TB Lung Dis 5:511–519

Pollard AJ, Britto J, Nadel S et al (1999) Emergency management of meningococcal disease. Arch Dis Child 80:290–296

den Brinker M, Joosten KFM, Lime O et al (2005) Adrenal insufficiency in meningococcal sepsis: bioavailable cortisol levels and impact of interleukin-6 levels and intubation with etomidate on adrenal function and mortality. Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:5110–5117

Han YY, Carcillo JA, Dragotta MA et al (2003) Early reversal of pediatric-neonatal septic shock by community physicians is associated with improved outcome. Pediatrics 112:793–799

Carcillo JA, Kuch BA, Han YY et al (2009) Mortality and functional morbidity after use of PALS/APLS by community physicians. Pediatrics 124:500–508

Oliveira CF, Nogueira de Sá FR, Oliveira DS et al (2008) Time- and fluid-sensitive resuscitation for hemodynamic support of children in septic shock: barriers to the implementation of the American College of Critical Care Medicine/Pediatric Advanced Life Support Guidelines in a pediatric intensive care unit in a developing world. Pediatr Emerg Care 24:810–815

Raimer PL, Han YY, Weber MS et al (2011) A normal capillary refill time of ≤2 seconds is associated with superior vena cava oxygen saturations of ≥70%. J Pediatr 158:968–972

Brierly J, Carcillo JA, Choong K et al (2009) Clinical practice parameters for hemodynamic support of pediatric and neonatal patients in septic shock: 2007 update from the American College of Critical Care Medicine. Crit Care Med 37:666–688

de Oliveira CF, de Oliveira DS, Gottschald AF et al (2008) ACCM/PALS haemodynamic support guidelines for paediatric septic shock: an outcomes comparison with and without monitoring central venous oxygen saturation. Intensive Care Med 34:1065–1075

Inwald DP, Tasker RC, Peters MJ et al (2009) Paediatric Intensive Care Society sepsis audit. Arch Dis Child 94:348–353

Malbrain ML, De laet I, Cheatham M (2007) Consensus conference definitions and recommendations on intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and the abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS): the long road to the final publications, how did we get there? Acta Clin Belg (Suppl):54–59

Cheatham ML, Malbrain ML, Kirkpatrick A et al (2007) Results from the international conference of experts on intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome—part II: recommendations. Intensive Care Med 33:951–962

Rollins MD, Vogler SA, Mills MK et al (2010) Decompressive laparotomy for abdominal compartment syndrome in children: before it is too late. J Pediatr Surg 45:1324–1329

Amado VM, Vilela GP, Queiroz A Jr et al (2011) Effect of a quality improvement intervention to decrease delays in antibiotic delivery in pediatric febrile neutropenia: A pilot study. J Crit Care 26:103, e9–103, e12

Cordery RJ, Roberts CH, Cooper SJ et al (2008) Evaluation of risk factors for the acquisition of bloodstream infections with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella species in the intensive care unit: antibiotic management and clinical outcome. J Hosp Infect 68:108–115

Ardura MI, Mejías A, Katz KS et al (2007) Daptomycin therapy for invasive gram-positive bacterial infections in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 26:1128–1132

Corey AL, Snyder S (2008) Antibiotics in 30 minutes or less for febrile neutropenic patients: a quality control measure in a new hospital. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs 25:208–212

Russell NE, Pachorek RE (2000) Clindamycin in the treatment of streptococcal and staphylococcal toxic shock syndromes. Ann Pharmacother 34:936–939

Nathwani D, Morgan M, Masterton RG et al (2008) Guidelines for UK practice for the diagnosis and management of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections presenting in the community. J Antimicrob Chemother 61:976–994

Gemmell CG, Edwards DI, Fraise AP et al (2006) Guidelines for the prophylaxis and treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in the UK. J Antimicrob Chemother 57:589–608

Cawley MJ, Briggs M, Haith LR Jr et al (1999) Intravenous immunoglobulin as adjunctive treatment for streptococcal toxic shock syndrome associated with necrotizing fasciitis: case report and review. Pharmacotherapy 19:1094–1098

Rodríguez-Nuñez A, Dosil-Gallardo S, Jordan I et al (2011) Clinical characteristics of children with group A streptococcal toxic shock syndrome admitted to pediatric intensive care units. Eur J Pediatr 170:639–644

Paganini HR, Della Latta P, Soto A et al (2010) Community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: 17 years of experience in Argentine children (in Spanish). Arch Argent Pediatr 108:311–317

Tilanus AM, de Geus HR, Rijnders BJ et al (2010) Severe group A streptococcal toxic shock syndrome presenting as primary peritonitis: a case report and brief review of the literature. Int J Infect Dis 14(Suppl 3):e208–e212

Newland JG, Kearns GL (2008) Treatment strategies for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in pediatrics. Paediatr Drugs 10:367–378

Barie PS, Williams MD, McCollam JS et al (2004) Benefit/risk profile of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in surgical patients with severe sepsis. Am J Surg 188:212–220

Barie PS, Hydo LJ, Shou J et al (2006) Efficacy and safety of drotrecogin alfa (activated) for the therapy of surgical patients with severe sepsis. Surg Infect 7(Suppl 2):S77–S80

Marshall JC, Maier RV, Jimenez M et al (2004) Source control in the management of severe sepsis and septic shock: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med 32(Suppl 11):S513–S526

Penington AJ, Craft RO, Tilkorn DJ (2007) Plastic surgery management of soft tissue loss in meningococcal septicemia: experience of the Melbourne Royal Children’s Hospital. Ann Plast Surg 58:308–314

Wheeler JS, Anderson BJ, De Chalain TM (2003) Surgical interventions in children with meningococcal purpura fulminans: a review of 117 procedures in 21 children. J Pediatr Surg 38:597–603

Jackson MA, Colombo J, Boldrey A (2003) Streptococcal fasciitis with toxic shock syndrome in the pediatric patient. Orthop Nurs 22:4–8

Xiao-Wu W, Herndon DN, Spies M et al (2002) Effects of delayed wound excision and grafting in severely burned children. Arch Surg 137:1049–1054

Haecker FM, Berger D, Schumacher U et al (2000) Peritonitis in childhood: aspects of pathogenesis and therapy. Pediatr Surg Int 16:182–188

Gwynne-Jones DP, Stott NS (1999) Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a cause of musculoskeletal sepsis in children. J Pediatr Orthop 19:413–416

Wu MH, Tseng YL, Lin MY et al (1997) Surgical treatment of pediatric lung abscess. Pediatr Surg Int 12:293–295

Murphy JJ, Granger R, Blair GK et al (1995) Necrotizing fasciitis in childhood. J Pediatr Surg 30:1131–1134

Jaber MR, Olafsson S, Fung WL et al (2008) Clinical review of the management of fulminant clostridium difficile infection. Am J Gastroenterol 103:3195–3203

Ananthakrishnan AN (2011) Clostridium difficile infection: epidemiology, risk factors and management. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 8:17–26

Olivas AD, Umanskiy K, Zuckerbraun B et al (2010) Avoiding colectomy during surgical management of fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis. Surg Infect 11:299–305

Ngo NT, Cao XT, Kneen R et al (2001) Acute management of dengue shock syndrome: a randomized double-blind comparison of 4 intravenous fluid regimens in the first hour. Clin Infect Dis 32:204–213

Willis BA, Dung NM, Loan HT et al (2005) Comparison of three fluid solutions for resuscitation in dengue shock syndrome. N Engl J Med 353:877–889

Dung NM, Day NP, Tam DT et al (1999) Fluid replacement in dengue shock syndrome: a randomized, double-blind comparison of four intravenous-fluid regimens. Clin Infect Dis 29:787–794

Booy R, Habibi P, Nadel S et al (2001) Reduction in case fatality rate from meningococcal disease associated with improved healthcare delivery. Arch Dis Child 85:386–390

Maat M, Buysse CM, Emonts M et al (2007) Improved survival of children with sepsis and purpura: effects of age, gender and era. Crit Care 11:R112

Cruz AT, Perry AM, Williams EA et al (2011) Implementation of goal-directed therapy for children with suspected sepsis in the emergency department. Pediatrics 127:e758–e766

Kanter RK, Zimmerman JJ, Strauss RH et al (1986) Pediatric emergency intravenous access: evaluation of a protocol. Am J Dis Child 140:132–134

Carcillo JA, Davis AL, Zaritsky A (1991) Role of early fluid resuscitation in pediatric septic shock. JAMA 266:1242–1245

Ranjit S, Kissoon N, Jayakumar I (2005) Aggressive management of dengue shock syndrome may decrease mortality rate: a suggested protocol. Pediatr Crit Care Med 6:412–419

Akech S, Ledermann N, Maitland K (2010) Choice of fluids for resuscitation in children with severe infection and shock. Systematic review. BMJ 341:c4416

Santhanam I, Sangareddi S, Venkataraman S et al (2008) A prospective randomized controlled study of two fluid regimens in the initial management of septic shock in the emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care 24:647–655

Ninis N, Phillips C, Bailey L et al (2005) The role of healthcare delivery in the outcome of meningococcal disease in children: case-control study of fatal and non-fatal meningococcal disease in children. BMJ 330:1475

Thompson MJ, Ninis N, Perera R et al (2006) Clinical recognition of meningococcal disease in children and adolescents. Lancet 367:397–403

Ceneviva G, Paschall JA, Maffei F et al (1998) Hemodynamic support in fluid-refractory pediatric septic shock. Pediatrics 102:e19

Choong K, Bohn D, Fraser DD et al (2009) Vasopressin in pediatric vasodilatory shock: a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 180:632–639

Yildizdas D, Yapicioglu H, Celik U et al (2008) Terlipressin as a rescue therapy for catecholamine-resistant septic shock in children. Intensive Care Med 34:511–517

Rodriguez-Nunez A, Lopez-Herce J, Gil-Anton J et al (2006) Tescue treatment with terlipressin in children with refractory septic shock: a clinical study. Crit Care 10:R20

Rodríguez-Núñez A, Oulego-Erroz I, Gil-Antón J et al (2010) Continuous terlipressin infusion as rescue treatment in a case series of children with refractory septic shock. Ann Pharmacother 44:1545–1553

Keeley SR, Bohn DJ (1988) The use of inotropic and afterload-reducing agents in neonates. Clin Perinatol 15:467–489

Barton P, Garcia J, Kouatli A et al (1996) Hemodynamic effects of i.v. milrinone lactate in pediatric patients with septic shock: a prospective, double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled, interventional study. Chest 109:1302–1312

Lindsay CA, Barton P, Lawless S et al (1998) Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of milrinone lactate in pediatric patients with septic shock. J Pediatr 132:329–334

Irazuzta JE, Pretzlaff RK, Rowin ME (2001) Amrinone in pediatric refractory septic shock: an open-label pharmacodynamic study. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2:24–28

Powell KR, Sugarman LI, Eskenazi AE et al (1991) Normalization of plasma arginine vasopressin concentrations when children with meningitis are given maintenance plus replacement fluid therapy. J Pediatr 117:515–522

Ringe HI, Varnholt V, Gaedicke G (2003) Cardiac rescue with enoximone in volume and catecholamine refractory septic shock. Pediatr Crit Care Med 4:471–475

Morelli A, Donati A, Ertmer C et al (2010) Levosimendan for resuscitating the microcirculation in patients with septic shock: a randomized controlled study. Crit Care 14:R232

Namachivayam P, Crossland DS, Butt WW et al (2006) Early experience with Levosimendan in children with ventricular dysfunction. Pediatr Crit Care Med 7:445–448 (Erratum in: Pediatr Crit Care Med 2007; 8:197)

Magliola R, Moreno G, Vassallo JC et al (2009) Levosimendan, a new inotropic drug: experience in children with acute heart failure (in Spanish). Arch Argent Pediatr 107:139–145

Harris E, Schulzke SM, Patole SK (2010) Pentoxifylline in preterm neonates: a systematic review. Paediatr Drugs 12:301–311

Meyer DM, Jessen ME (1997) Results of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in children with sepsis: the extracorporeal Life Support Organization. Ann Thorac Surg 63:756–761

Goldman AP, Kerr SJ, Butt W et al (1997) Extracorporeal support for intractable cardiorespiratory failure due to meningococcal disease. Lancet 349:466–469

Skinner SC, Iocono JA, Ballard HO et al (2012) Improved survival in venovenous vs venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for pediatric noncardiac sepsis patients: a study of the Extracorporeal Life Support registry. J Ped Surg 47:63–67

Domico MB, Ridout DA, Bronicki R et al (2012) The impact of mechanical ventilation time before initiation of extracorporeal life support on survival in pediatric respiratory failure: a review of the extracorporeal life support registry. Pediatr Crit Care Med 13:16–21

Bartlett RH (2007) Extracorporeal support for septic shock. Pediatr Crit Care Med 8:498–499

Maclaren G, Butt W, Best D et al (2011) Central extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for refractory pediatric septic shock. Pediatr Crit Care Med 12:133–136

Flagg A, Danziger-Isakov L, Foster C et al (2010) Novel 2009 H1N1 influenza virus infection requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in a pediatric heart transplant recipient. J Heart Lung Transpl 29:582–584

Kumar A, Zarychanski R, Pinto R et al (2009) Critically ill patients with 2009 influenza A (H1N1) infection in Canada. JAMA 302:1872–1879

Pizarro CF, Troster EJ, Damiani D et al (2005) Absolute and relative adrenal insufficiency in children with septic shock. Crit Care Med 33:855–859

Riordan FA, Thomson AP, Ratcliffe JM et al (1999) Admission cortisol and adrenocorticotrophic hormone levels in children with meningococcal disease: evidence of adrenal insufficiency? Crit Care Med 27:2257–2261

De Kleijn ED, Joosten KF, Van Rijn B et al (2002) Low serum cortisol in combination with high adrenocorticotrophic hormone concentrations is associated with poor outcome in children with severe meningococcal disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J 21:330–336

Markovitz BP, Goodman DM, Watson S et al (2005) A retrospective cohort study of prognostic factors associated with outcome in pediatric severe sepsis: what is the role of steroids? Pediatr Crit Care Med 6:270–274

Pizarro CF, Troster EJ (2007) Adrenal function in sepsis and septic shock. J Pediatr (Rio J) 83(Suppl 5):S155–S162

Zimmerman JJ, Williams MD (2011) Adjunctive corticosteroid therapy in pediatric severe sepsis: observations from the RESOLVE study. Pediatr Crit Care Med 12:2–8

Lacroix J, Hebert PC, Hutchison JS et al (2007) Transfusion strategies for patients in pediatric intensive care units. N Engl J Med 256:1609–1619

Karam O, Tucci M, Ducruet T et al (2011) Ted blood cell transfusion thresholds in pediatric patients with sepsis. Pediatr Crit Care Med 12:512–518

Church GD, Matthay MA, Liu K et al (2009) Blood product transfusions and clinical outcomes in pediatric patients with acute lung injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med 10:297–302

López-Herce Cid J, Bustinza Arriortúa A, Alcaraz Romero A et al (2003) Treatment of septic shock with continuous plasma filtration and hemodiafiltration (in Spanish). An Pediatr 59:491–496

Stegmayr BG, Banga R, Berggren L et al (2003) Plasma exchange as rescue therapy in multiple organ failure including acute renal failure. Crit Care Med 31:1730–1736

El-Nawawy A, Abbassy AA, El-Bordiny M et al (2004) Evaluation of early detection and management of disseminated intravascular coagulation among Alexandria University pediatric intensive care patients. J Trop Pediatr 50:339–347

Campanelli A, Kaya G, Ozsahin AH et al (2004) Purpura fulminans in a child as a complication of chicken pox infection. Dermatology 208:262–264

Muntean W (2002) Fresh frozen plasma in the pediatric age group and in congenital coagulation factor deficiency. Thromb Res 107(Suppl 1):S29–S32 (Review)

Sánchez Miralles A, Reig Sáenz R, Marco Vera P et al (2002) Abnormalities in coagulation and fibrinolysis in septic shock with purpura (in Spanish). An Esp Pediatr 56:99–100

Hazelzet JA, Risseeuw-Appel IM, Kornelisse RF et al (1996) Age-related differences in outcome and severity of DIC in children with septic shock and purpura. Thromb Haemost 76:932–938

Churchwell KB, McManus ML, Kent P et al (1995) Intensive blood and plasma exchange for treatment of coagulopathy in meningococcemia. J Clin Apher 10:171–177

Ala FA, Greaves M, Jones J et al (2009) Guidelines for the use of fresh frozen plasma. British Committee for Standards in Haematology, Working Party of the Blood Transfusion Task Force. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 7:110–119

Meyer B, Hellstern P (2008) Recommendations for the use of therapeutic plasma. Semin Nephrol 28:447–456

Fortenberry JD (2008) Pediatric critical care management of septic shock prior to acute kidney injury and renal replacement therapy. Semin Nephrol 28:447–456

O’Shaughnessy DF, Atterbury C, Bolton M et al (2002) British Committee for Standards in Haematology, Blood Transfusion Task Force. Practical guidelines for the clinical use of plasma. Thromb Res 107(Suppl 1):S53–S57

Muntean W, Schramm W, Seifried E et al (1998) Guideline for the use of fresh-frozen plasma. Medical Directors Advisory Committee, National Blood Transfusion Council. S Afr Med J 88:1344–1347

Nguyen TC, Han YY (2011) Plasma exchange therapy for thrombotic microangiopathies. Organogenesis 1:28–31

van Deuren M, Brandtzaeg P, van der Meer JW (2000) Update on meningococcal disease with emphasis on pathogenesis and clinical management. Clin Microbiol Rev 13:144–166

Scharfman WB, Tillotson JR, Taft EG et al (1979) Plasmapheresis for meningococcemia with disseminated intravascular coagulation. N Engl J Med 300:1277–1278

van Deuren M, Santman FW, van Dalen R et al (1992) Plasma and whole blood exchange in meningococcal sepsis. Clin Infect Dis 15:424–430

Bjorvatn B, Bjertnaes L, Fadnes HO et al (1984) Meningococcal septicaemia treated with combined plasmapheresis and leucapheresis or with blood exchange. Br Med J 288:439–441

Brandtzaeg P, Sirnes K, Folsland B et al (1985) Plasmapheresis in the treatment of severe meningococcal or pneumococcal septicaemia with DIC and fibrinolysis: preliminary data on eight patients. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 178(Suppl):53–55

Drapkin MS, Wisch JS, Gelfand JA et al (1989) Plasmapheresis for fulminant meningococcemia. Pediatr Infect Dis J 8:399–400

Schott U, Bjorsell-Ostling E (1995) Sonoclot coagulation analysis and plasma exchange in a case of meningococcal septicaemia. Can J Anaesth 42:64–68

Mok Q, Butt W (1996) The outcome of children admitted to intensive care with meningococcal septicaemia. Intensive Care Med 22:259–263

Kumar A, Kanagasundaram NS, Collyns TA et al (1998) Plasma exchange and haemodiafiltration in fulminant meningococcal sepsis. Nephrol Dial Transpl 13:484–487

Muntean C, Bloodworth LL, Korn TH (2000) Antithrombin concentrate with plasma exchange in purpura fulminans. Pediatr Crit Care Med 1:84–87

Busund R, Koukline V, Utrobin U et al (2002) Plasmapheresis in severe sepsis and septic shock: a prospective, randomised, controlled trial. Intensive Care Med 28:1434–1439

Randolph AG (2009) Management of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome in children. Crit Care Med 37:2448–2454

Krishnan J, Morrison W (2007) Airway pressure release ventilation: a pediatric case series. Pediatr Pulmonol 42:83–88

Ten IS, Anderson MR (2006) Is high-frequency ventilation more beneficial than low-tidal volume conventional ventilation? Respir Care Clin N Am 12:437–451

Rotta AT, Steinhorn DM (2006) Is permissive hypercapnia a beneficial strategy for pediatric acute lung injury? Respir Care Clin N Am 12:371–387

Ben Jaballah N, Khaldi A, Mnif K et al (2006) High-frequency oscillatory ventilation in pediatric patients with acute respiratory failure. Pediatr Crit Care Med 7:362–367

Kam PC, Cardone D (2007) Propofol infusion syndrome. Anaesthesia 62:690–701

Parke TJ, Stevens JE, Rice AS et al (1992) Metabolic acidosis and fatal myocardial failure after propofol infusion in children: five case reports. BMJ 305:613–616

den Brinker M, Hokken-Koelega AC, Hazelzet JA et al (2008) One single dose of etomidate negatively influences adrenocortical performance for at least 24 h in children with meningococcal sepsis. Intensive Care Med 34:163–168

Su F, Hammer GB (2011) Dexmedetomidine: pediatric pharmacology, clinical uses and safety. Expert Opin Drug Saf 10:55–66

Carcillo JA, Doughty L, Kofos D et al (2003) Cytochrome P450 mediated-drug metabolism is reduced in children with sepsis-induced multiple organ failure. Intensive Care Med 29:980–984

Branco RG, Garcia PC, Piva JP et al (2005) Glucose level and risk of mortality in pediatric septic shock. Pediatr Crit Care Med 6:470–472

Faustino EV, Apkon M (2005) Persistent hyperglycemia in critically ill children. J Pediatr 146:30–34

Jeschke MG, Kulp GA, Kraft R et al (2010) Intensive insulin therapy in severely burned pediatric patients: a prospective randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 182:351–359

Day KM, Haub N, Betts H et al (2008) Hyperglycemia is associated with morbidity in critically ill children with meningococcal sepsis. Pediatr Crit Care Med 9:636–640

Garcia Branco R, Tasker RC, Ramos Garcia PC et al (2007) Glycemic control and insulin therapy in sepsis and critical illness. J Pediatr (Rio J) 83(Suppl 5):S128–S136

Verhoeven JJ, den Brinker M, Hokken-Koelega AC et al (2011) Pathophysiological aspects of hyperglycemia in children with meningococcal sepsis and septic shock: a prospective, observational cohort study. Crit Care 15:R44

Vlasselaers D, Milants I, Desmet L et al (2009) Intensive insulin therapy for patients in paediatric intensive care: a prospective, randomised controlled study. Lancet 373:547–556

Foland JA, Fortenberry JD, Warshaw BL et al (2004) Fluid overload before continuous hemofiltration and survival in critically ill children: a retrospective analysis. Crit Care Med 32:1771–1776

Santiago MJ, López-Herce J, Urbano J et al (2010) Clinical course and mortality risk factors in critically ill children requiring continuous renal replacement therapy. Intensive Care Med 36:843–849

Brophy PD (2008) Renal supportive therapy for pediatric acute kidney injury in the setting of multiorgan dysfunction syndrome/sepsis. Semin Nephrol 28:457–469

Krafte-Jacobs B, Sivit CJ, Mejia R et al (1995) Catheter-related thrombosis in critically ill children: comparison of catheters with and without heparin bonding. J Pediatr 126:50–54

Pierce CM, Wade A, Mok Q (2000) Heparin-bonded central venous lines reduce thrombotic and infective complications in critically ill children. Intensive Care Med 26:967–972

Chaïbou M, Tucci M, Dugas MA et al (1998) Clinically significant upper gastrointestinal bleeding acquired in a pediatric intensive care unit: a prospective study. Pediatrics 102:933–938

Gauvin F, Dugas M, Chaïbou M et al (2001) The impact of clinically significant upper gastrointestinal bleeding in a pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2:294–298

Sheridan RL, Yu YM, Prelack K et al (1998) Maximal parenteral glucose oxidation in hypermetabolic young children: a stable isotope study. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 22:212–216