Surface modification of stainless steel for biomedical applications: Revisiting a century-old material

Xiao, 2017, Bio-functionalization of biomedical metals, Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl., 70, 1057, 10.1016/j.msec.2016.06.067

Hermawan, 2011, Metals for biomedical applications, 411

Zhang, 2015, MC3T3-E1 cell response to stainless steel 316L with different surface treatments, Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl., 56, 22, 10.1016/j.msec.2015.06.017

Niinomi, 2003, Fatigue performance and cyto-toxicity of low rigidity titanium alloy, Ti-29Nb-13Ta-4.6Zr, Biomaterials, 24, 2673, 10.1016/S0142-9612(03)00069-3

Davis, 2000, Introduction to stainless steels, 584

Wu, 2014, Biomimetic porous scaffolds for bone tissue engineering, Mater. Sci. Eng. R. Rep., 80, 1, 10.1016/j.mser.2014.04.001

Virtanen, 2008, Special modes of corrosion under physiological and simulated physiological conditions, Acta Biomater., 4, 468, 10.1016/j.actbio.2007.12.003

Zardiackas, 2006, Stainless steel for implants

Chen, 2015, Metallic implant biomaterials, Mater. Sci. Eng. R. Rep., 87, 1, 10.1016/j.mser.2014.10.001

Latifi, 2013, Electrochemical and chemical methods for improving surface characteristics of 316L stainless steel for biomedical applications, Surf. Coat. Technol., 221, 1, 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2013.01.020

Omar, 2015, Sol-gel hybrid coatings with strontium-doped 45S5 glass particles for enhancing the performance of stainless steel implants: Electrochemical, bioactive and in vivo response, J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 425, 1, 10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2015.05.024

Fathi, 2009, Novel fluorapatite/niobium composite coating for metallic human body implants, Mater. Lett., 63, 1195, 10.1016/j.matlet.2009.02.040

Xiao, 2015, Surface modification of 316L stainless steel by grafting methoxy poly(ethylene glycol) to improve the biocompatibility, Chem. Res. Chin. Univ., 31, 651, 10.1007/s40242-015-5027-0

Yuan, 2013, Enhancing antibacterial activity of surface-grafted chitosan with immobilized lysozyme on bioinspired stainless steel substrates, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 106, 11, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2012.12.048

Medilanski, 2002, Influence of the surface topography of stainless steel on bacterial adhesion, Biofouling, 18, 193, 10.1080/08927010290011370

Benvenuto, 2015, Adlayer-mediated antibody immobilization to stainless steel for potential application to endothelial progenitor cell capture, Langmuir, 31, 5423, 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b00812

Mahajan, 2017, Surface modification of metallic biomaterials for enhanced functionality: a review, Mater. Technol., 1

Talha, 2013, A review on nickel-free nitrogen containing austenitic stainless steels for biomedical applications, Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl., 33, 3563, 10.1016/j.msec.2013.06.002

Leach, 2008, Guide to the measurement of smooth surface topography using coherence scanning interferometry

Stoever, 2006, Microstructuring of stainless steel implants by electrochemical etching, J. Mater. Sci., 41, 5569, 10.1007/s10853-006-0257-7

Bhuyan, 2005, Pulse and DC electropolishing of stainless steel for stents and other devices, vol. 1 and 2, 314

Hilbert, 2003, Influence of surface roughness of stainless steel on microbial adhesion and corrosion resistance, Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad., 52, 175, 10.1016/S0964-8305(03)00104-5

Latifi, 2014, Plasma surface oxidation of 316L stainless steel for improving adhesion strength of silicone rubber coating to metal substrate, Appl. Surf. Sci., 320, 471, 10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.09.084

Bagherifard, 2016, Nanoscale surface modification of AISI 316L stainless steel by severe shot peening, Mater. Des., 102, 68, 10.1016/j.matdes.2016.03.162

McLucas, 2006, An investigation into the effect of surface roughness of stainless steel on human umbilical vein endothelial cell gene expression, Endothelium, 13, 35, 10.1080/10623320600660185

Rodriguez, 2011, Influence of cutting parameters and material properties on cutting temperature when turning stainless steel, Rev. Fac. Ing. Univ. Cent. Venez., 26

Schlisselberg, 2013, The effects of stainless steel finish on Salmonella typhimurium attachment, biofilm formation and sensitivity to chlorine, Food Microbiol., 35, 65, 10.1016/j.fm.2013.02.005

Bohinc, 2016, Metal surface characteristics dictate bacterial adhesion capacity, Int. J. Adhes. Adhes., 68, 39, 10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2016.01.008

Kenar, 2013, Femtosecond laser treatment of 316L improves its surface nanoroughness and carbon content and promotes osseointegration: an in vitro evaluation, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 108, 305, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2013.02.039

Oberringer, 2013, Reduced myofibroblast differentiation on femtosecond laser treated 316LS stainless steel, Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl., 33, 901, 10.1016/j.msec.2012.11.018

Kam, 2012, Control of the wetting properties of an AISI 316L stainless steel surface by femtosecond laser-induced surface modification, J. Micromech. Microeng., 22, 10.1088/0960-1317/22/10/105019

Manivasagam, 2010, Biomedical implants: corrosion and its prevention - a review, 40

Garcia, 2011, Surface modification of biomaterials

Shih, 2004, Effect of surface oxide properties on corrosion resistance of 316L stainless steel for biomedical applications, Corros. Sci., 46, 427, 10.1016/S0010-938X(03)00148-3

Khalil, 2014, Biomimetic PEG-catecholates for stabile antifouling coatings on metal surfaces: applications on TiO2 and stainless steel, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 117, 185, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.02.022

Bayram, 2010, In vitro biocompatibility of plasma-aided surface-modified 316L stainless steel for intracoronary stents, Biomed. Mater., 5, 10.1088/1748-6041/5/5/055007

Yang, 2011, Biomimetic anchors for antifouling and antibacterial polymer brushes on stainless steel, Langmuir, 27, 7065, 10.1021/la200620s

Zhu, 2014, Construction of octadecyltrichlorosilane self-assembled monolayer on stainless steel 316L surface, Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp., 457, 408, 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2014.06.025

Hequet, 2011, Optimized grafting of antimicrobial peptides on stainless steel surface and biofilm resistance tests, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 84, 301, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2011.01.012

Muller, 2005, Surface engineering of stainless steel materials by covalent collagen immobilization to improve implant biocompatibility, Biomaterials, 26, 6962, 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.05.013

Sutow, 1980, The influence of electropolishing, J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 14, 587, 10.1002/jbm.820140505

Asoh, 2016, Fabrication of thick nanoporous oxide films on stainless steel via DC anodization and subsequent biofunctionalization, Surf. Coat. Technol., 307, 441, 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2016.09.025

Xie, 2013, Deformation and corrosion behaviors of Ti-O film deposited 316L stainless steel by plasma immersion ion implantation and deposition, Surf. Coat. Technol., 214, 117, 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2012.11.012

Jin, 2015, Microstructure, corrosion and tribological and antibacterial properties of Ti-Cu coated stainless steel, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater., 50, 23, 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.06.004

Wang, 2015, Surface modification of biomedical AISI 316L stainless steel with zirconium carbonitride coatings, Appl. Surf. Sci., 340, 113, 10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.02.191

Surmenev, 2017, Tool for surface modification of medical implants as a tool for surface modification of medical implants

Jones, 2014, Corrosion resistance improvement for 316L stainless steel coronary artery stents by trimethylsilane plasma nanocoatings, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater., 102, 1363, 10.1002/jbm.b.33115

Qiu, 2017, Electrochemical functionalization of 316 stainless steel with polyaniline-graphene oxide: corrosion resistance study, Mater. Chem. Phys., 198, 90, 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2017.05.004

Park, 2003, Improvement of the biocompatibility and mechanical properties of surgical tools with TiN coating by PACVD, Thin Solid Films, 435, 102, 10.1016/S0040-6090(03)00412-7

Tillmann, 2006, Selecting surface-treatment technologies

Salahinejad, 2013, A new double-layer sol-gel coating to improve the corrosion resistance of a medical-grade stainless steel in a simulated body fluid, Mater. Lett., 97, 162, 10.1016/j.matlet.2013.01.111

Gopi, 2013, Corrosion protection performance of porous strontium hydroxyapatite coating on polypyrrole coated 316L stainless steel, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 107, 130, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2013.01.065

Gopi, 2014, Development of strontium and magnesium substituted porous hydroxyapatite/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) coating on surgical grade stainless steel and its bioactivity on osteoblast cells, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 114, 234, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2013.10.011

Mozafari, 2014, Innovative surface modification of orthopaedic implants with positive effects on wettability and in vitro anti-corrosion performance, Surf. Eng., 30, 688, 10.1179/1743294414Y.0000000309

Kheirkhah, 2015, Surface modification of stainless steel implants using nanostructured forsterite (Mg2SiO4) coating for biomaterial applications, Surf. Coat. Technol., 276, 580, 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2015.06.012

Hieda, 2012, Effect of terminal functional groups of silane layers on adhesive strength between biomedical Ti-29Nb-13Ta-4.6Zr alloy and segment polyurethanes, Surf. Coat. Technol., 206, 3137, 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2011.12.044

Hosseinalipour, 2010, Characterization of sol-gel coated 316L stainless steel for biomedical applications, Prog. Org. Coat., 67, 371, 10.1016/j.porgcoat.2010.01.002

Liu, 2015, Corrosion protection of silane coatings modified by carbon nanotubes on stainless steel, Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 10, 3497, 10.1016/S1452-3981(23)06556-2

Macionczyk, 2001, Repassivating tantalum/tantalum oxide surface modification on stainless steel implants, Surf. Coat. Technol., 142, 1084, 10.1016/S0257-8972(01)01096-9

Tavares, 2009, Corrosion behavior and fibrinogen adsorptive interaction of SS316L surfaces covered with ethylene glycol plasma polymer-coated Ti nanoparticles, Surf. Coat. Technol., 203, 2278, 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2009.02.025

Okner, 2009, Electrochemically deposited poly(ethylene glycol)-based sol-gel thin films on stainless steel stents, New J. Chem., 33, 1596, 10.1039/b901864f

Kirkland, 2012, Assessing the corrosion of biodegradable magnesium implants: a critical review of current methodologies and their limitations, Acta Biomater., 8, 925, 10.1016/j.actbio.2011.11.014

Choudhary, 2017, A review of corrosion behaviour analysis studies of different stainless steel grades in distinct environments, Int. J. Latest Trends Eng. Technol. Spec. Issue, 178

Wise, 2015, Immobilization of bioactive plasmin reduces the thrombogenicity of metal surfaces, Colloids Surf. B: Biointerfaces, 136, 944, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.10.035

Liu, 2015, Construction of mussel-inspired coating via the direct reaction of catechol and polyethyleneimine for efficient heparin immobilization, Appl. Surf. Sci., 328, 163, 10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.12.004

Lee, 2007, Mussel-inspired surface chemistry for multifunctional coatings, Science, 318, 426, 10.1126/science.1147241

Yang, 2015, A biocompatible and functional adhesive amine-rich coating based on dopamine polymerization, J. Mater. Chem. B, 3, 72, 10.1039/C4TB01236D

Kang, 2012, Immobilization of epidermal growth factor on titanium and stainless steel surfaces via dopamine treatment, Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl., 32, 2552, 10.1016/j.msec.2012.07.039

Jin, 2014, Grafting of HEMA onto dopamine coated stainless steel by Co-60-gamma irradiation method, Radiat. Phys. Chem., 105, 57, 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2014.06.018

Liu, 2013, Biofunctionalized anti-corrosive silane coatings for magnesium alloys, Acta Biomater., 9, 8671, 10.1016/j.actbio.2012.12.025

Jo, 2000, Surface modification using silanated poly(ethylene glycol)s, Biomaterials, 21, 605, 10.1016/S0142-9612(99)00224-0

Zhang, 2001, Surface modification of stainless steel by grafting of poly(ethylene glycol) for reduction in protein adsorption, Biomaterials, 22, 1541, 10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00310-0

Pang, 2015, Grafting of ionic liquids on stainless steel surface for antibacterial application, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 126, 162, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.12.018

Kang, 2007, The surface modification of stainless steel and the correlation between the surface properties and protein adsorption, J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med., 18, 1389, 10.1007/s10856-006-0079-9

Bastarrachea, 2013, Development of antimicrobial stainless steel via surface modification with N-halamines: characterization of surface chemistry and N-halamine chlorination, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 127, 821, 10.1002/app.37806

Jussila, 2010, Effect of surface hydroxyl concentration on the bonding and morphology of aminopropylsilane thin films on austenitic stainless steel, Surf. Interface Anal., 42, 157, 10.1002/sia.3200

Soya, 2009, Effect of oxide layers of Ni-free stainless-steel on silane coupling agent immobilization, Mater. Trans., 50, 1318, 10.2320/matertrans.ME200827

Yoshioka, 2003, Preparation of alginic acid layers on stainless-steel substrates for biomedical applications, Biomaterials, 24, 2889, 10.1016/S0142-9612(03)00127-3

Zhong, 2014, Atomic layer deposition enhanced grafting of phosphorylcholine on stainless steel for intravascular stents, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 121, 238, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.06.022

Hynninen, 2016, Improved antifouling properties and selective biofunctionalization of stainless steel by employing heterobifunctional silane-polyethylene glycol overlayers and avidin-biotin technology, Sci. Rep., 6, 10.1038/srep29324

Vuori, 2014, Controlling the synergetic effects in (3-aminopropyl) trimethoxysilane and (3-mercaptopropyl) trimethoxysilane coadsorption on stainless steel surfaces, Appl. Surf. Sci., 317, 856, 10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.08.199

Wei, 2003, Stainless steel modified with poly(ethylene glycol) can prevent protein adsorption but not bacterial adhesion, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 32, 275, 10.1016/S0927-7765(03)00180-2

Kaufmann, 2010, Long-term stability of self-assembled monolayers on 316L stainless steel, Biomed. Mater., 5, 10.1088/1748-6041/5/2/025008

Mahapatro, 2006, Surface modification of functional self-assembled monolayers on 316L stainless steel via lipase catalysis, Langmuir, 22, 901, 10.1021/la052817h

Mahapatro, 2006, The use of alkanethiol self-assembled monolayers on 316L stainless steel for coronary artery stent nanomedicine applications: an oxidative and in vitro stability study, Nanomedicine, 2, 182, 10.1016/j.nano.2006.07.006

Shustak, 2004, Preparation and characterization of n-alkanoic acid self-assembled monolayers adsorbed on 316L stainless steel, Langmuir, 20, 7499, 10.1021/la036470z

Harvey, 2012, An electrochemical method for functionalization of a 316L stainless steel surface being used as a stent in coronary surgery: irreversible immobilization of fibronectin for the enhancement of endothelial cell attachment, Biotechnol. Lett., 34, 1159, 10.1007/s10529-012-0885-8

Yang, 2010, The covalent immobilization of heparin to pulsed-plasma polymeric allylamine films on 316L stainless steel and the resulting effects on hemocompatibility, Biomaterials, 31, 2072, 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.11.091

Kastellorizios, 2012, Haemocompatibility improvement of metallic surfaces by covalent immobilization of heparin-liposomes, Int. J. Pharm., 432, 91, 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2012.04.057

Yin, 2009, Covalent immobilisation of tropoelastin on a plasma deposited interface for enhancement of endothelialisation on metal surfaces, Biomaterials, 30, 1675, 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.11.009

Sasaki, 2012, The effect of VEGF-immobilized nickel-free high—nitrogen stainless steel on viability and proliferation of vascular endothelial cells, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 92, 1, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2011.10.061

Caro, 2010, Bioengineering of stainless steel surface by covalent immobilization of enzymes. Physical characterization and interfacial enzymatic activity, J. Colloid Interface Sci., 349, 13, 10.1016/j.jcis.2009.12.001

Kruszewski, 2013, Reducing Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation on stainless steel 316L using functionalized self-assembled monolayers, Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl., 33, 2059, 10.1016/j.msec.2013.01.023

Braceras, 2014, Decrease of Staphylococcal adhesion on surgical stainless steel after Si ion implantation, Appl. Surf. Sci., 310, 36, 10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.03.167

Procaccini, 2016, Silver-functionalized methyl-silica hybrid materials as antibacterial coatings on surgical-grade stainless steel, Prog. Org. Coat., 97, 28, 10.1016/j.porgcoat.2016.03.012

Skovager, 2013, A comparative study of fine polished stainless steel, TiN and TiN/Ag surfaces: adhesion and attachment strength of Listeria monocytogenes as well as anti-listerial effect, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 109, 190, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2013.03.044

Zhao, 2007, Bacterial adhesion on ion-implanted stainless steel surfaces, Appl. Surf. Sci., 253, 8674, 10.1016/j.apsusc.2007.04.044

Yuan, 2011, Lysozyme-coupled poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate)-stainless steel hybrids and their antifouling and antibacterial surfaces, Langmuir, 27, 2761, 10.1021/la104442f

Navarro, 2008, Biomaterials in orthopaedics, J. R. Soc. Interface, 5, 1137, 10.1098/rsif.2008.0151

Sutha, 2013, Enhancement of antimicrobial and long-term biostability of the zinc-incorporated hydroxyapatite coated 316L stainless steel implant for biomedical application, Ceram. Int., 39, 5205, 10.1016/j.ceramint.2012.12.019

Agarwal, 2015, Simple coating with fibronectin fragment enhances stainless steel screw osseointegration in healthy and osteoporotic rats, Biomaterials, 63, 137, 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.06.025

Salahinejad, 2017, Deposition of nanodiopside coatings on metallic biomaterials to stimulate apatite-forming ability, Mater. Des., 123, 120, 10.1016/j.matdes.2017.03.047

Chen, 2011, On improving blood compatibility: from bioinspired to synthetic design and fabrication of biointerfacial topography at micro/nano scales, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 85, 2, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.10.034

Tan, 2003, Constructing thromboresistant surface on biomedical stainless steel via layer-by-layer deposition anticoagulant, Biomaterials, 24, 4699, 10.1016/S0142-9612(03)00363-6

Joung, 2012, In situ forming, metal-adhesive heparin hydrogel surfaces for blood-compatible coating, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 99, 102, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2011.10.047

Li, 2013, Immobilization of hesperidin on stainless steel surfaces and its blood compatibility, Biomed. Prev. Nutr., 3, 10.1016/j.bionut.2013.08.007

Volny, 2007, Enhanced in-vitro blood compatibility of 316L stainless steel surfaces by reactive landing of hyaluronan ions, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater., 80B, 505, 10.1002/jbm.b.30624

Farhatnia, 2013, Evolution of covered stents in the contemporary era: clinical application, materials and manufacturing strategies using nanotechnology, Biotechnol. Adv., 31, 524, 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.12.010

Ravindranath, 2016, In vitro and in vivo cell-capture strategies using cardiac stent technology - a review, Clin. Biochem., 49, 186, 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2015.09.012

Lee, 2012, Comparison of endothelialization and neointimal formation with stents coated with antibodies against CD34 and vascular endothelial-cadherin, Biomaterials, 33, 8917, 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.08.066

Larsen, 2012, Capture of circulatory endothelial progenitor cells and accelerated re-endothelialization of a bio-engineered stent in human ex vivo shunt and rabbit denudation model, Eur. Heart J., 33, 120, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehr196

Qi, 2015, Immobilization of DNA aptamers via plasma polymerized allylamine film to construct an endothelial progenitor cell-capture surface, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 126, 70, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.12.001

Alzubaidi, 2014, Biosensor based on microstructured optical fiber Bragg grating for DNA detection

Bruce, 2005, Surface modification of magnetic nanoparticles with alkoxysilanes and their application in magnetic bioseparations, Langmuir, 21, 10.1021/la050553t

Chen, 2015, EDC-mediated oligonucleotide immobilization on a long period grafting optical biosensor, J, Biosens. Bioelectron., 6

Mallikaratchy, 2011, A multivalent DNA aptamer specific for the B-cell receptor on human lymphoma and leukemia, Nucleic Acids Res., 39, 2458, 10.1093/nar/gkq996

Ceylan, 2011, Selective adhesion and growth of vascular endothelial cells on bioactive peptide nanofiber functionalized stainless steel surface, Biomaterials, 32, 8797, 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.08.018

Wei, 2013, Surface engineering of cardiovascular stent with endothelial cell selectivity for in vivo re-endothelialisation, Biomaterials, 34, 2588, 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.12.036

Huang, 2008, Surface immobilization of chondroitin 6-sulfate/heparin multilayer on stainless steel for developing drug-eluting coronary stents, Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces, 61, 43, 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2007.07.004

Huang, 2007, Behaviors of controlled drug release of magnetic-gelatin hydrogel coated stainless steel for drug-eluting-stents application, J. Magn. Magn. Mater., 310, 2874, 10.1016/j.jmmm.2006.11.151

Grube, 2010, A Novel paclitaxel-eluting stent with an ultrathin abluminal biodegradable polymer 9-month outcomes with the JACTAX HD stent, J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. Intv., 3, 431, 10.1016/j.jcin.2009.12.015

Xu, 2016, Biodegradable polymer-based sirolimus-eluting stents with differing elution and absorption kinetics the PANDA III trial, J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 67, 2249, 10.1016/j.jacc.2016.03.475

Seidlitz, 2015, In vitro study of sirolimus release from a drug-eluting stent: comparison of the release profiles obtained using different test setups, Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm., 93, 328, 10.1016/j.ejpb.2015.04.016

Amiri, 2017, Graphene grown on stainless steel mesh as a highly efficient sorbent for sorptive microextraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from water samples, Anal. Chim. Acta, 994, 29, 10.1016/j.aca.2017.08.049

Rezaei, 2013, Stainless steel modified with an aminosilane layer and gold nanoparticles as a novel disposable substrate for impedimetric immunosensors, Biosens. Bioelectron., 48, 61, 10.1016/j.bios.2013.03.061

Saucedo-Zeni, 2012, A novel method for the in vivo isolation of circulating tumor cells from peripheral blood of cancer patients using a functionalized and structured medical wire, Int. J. Oncol., 41, 1241