Structural Stability and Organic Matter Stabilization in Soils: Differential Impacts of Soil Salinity and Sodicity
Tóm tắt
The present study investigated the quality of soil organic matter (SOM) and carbon (C) stability in saline and sodic soils under rice–wheat cropping system in south-western Punjab (India). The main objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of salt-affected landscapes on soil physical, chemical, biological, and microbial attributes which inter alia influence SOM quality and vice versa. The C stability in soils under saline and sodic landscapes was studied vis-à-vis normal soils based on clay dispersion ratio (CDR), clay flocculation index (CFI), distribution of macro- (> 0.25 mm) and micro-aggregates (< 0.25 mm), aggregate ratio (AR), C preservation capacity (CPC), total organic C (TOC) fractions of variable oxidizability, and partitioning of SOM as humic acid (HA), non-humic acid (NH), and fulvic acid (FA). Soil enzymatic activity, C mineralization, and basal soil respiration (BSR) were determined to estimate microbial (qmic) and mineralization quotients (qM) for soils under salt-affected landscapes. Soil-related glomalin protein (TG) was determined to establish relationship between aggregate breakage and eventually the release of C. Sodic landscapes had significantly (p < 0.05) higher CDR (by ~ 17.6 and 12.6%) but lower CFI (by ~ 25.0 and 17.2%) than saline and normal landscapes, respectively. The AR was significantly lower by ~ 28.8% and 50.9% in saline and sodic, compared with the normal landscapes. The salt-affected soils had significantly lower NH, HA, and FA concentration than the normal soils. The stable C pool comprised ~ 69.9% of TOC in saline as compared to ~ 55.1% in sodic and ~ 66.1% in normal landscapes. Macro-aggregate breakage and C release was related to decreased TG content and was discernible as significant reduction in aggregate associated C and CPC in sodic soils. A significantly higher qM for normal soils (by ~ 8.1% of TOC) than saline (by ~ 4.5%) and sodic soils (~ 5.3%) was responsible for higher C mineralization and BSR in soils. These results revealed that loss of TOC pool in sodic soils was ascribed to significantly higher dispersion ratio (DR) because of increased WDS and WDC causing reduction in proportion of water stable aggregates (WSA). Aggregate breakage in sodic soils resulted in loss of stable C pool with concomitant increase the active C pool. The lower qmic for soils under salt-affected landscapes revealed stressed microbial biomass due to excessive salt accumulation. The study highlights great potential for increasing SOM stabilization and structural stability of salt-affected soil with the adoption of appropriate land-use management strategies. These results underpin considerable potential for C sequestration in salt-affected soils through land rehabilitation by reclamation.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Abdou F, El-Kobbia T, Sorensen L (1975) Decomposition of native organic matter and 14C-labelled barley straw in different Egyptian soils. Beitr Trop Land Wirtsch Veterinarmed 13:203–209
Adam G, Duncan H (2001) Development of a sensitive and rapid method for the measurement of total microbial activity using fluorescein diacetate (FDA) in a range of soils. Soil Biol Biochem 33:943–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(00)00244-3
Aguilera SM, Borie G, Galindo G, Peirano P (1997) Organic matter in volcanic soils in chile chemical and biochemical–characterization. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 28:899–912
Allen LH Jr, Valle RR, Mishoe JW, Jones JW (1994) Soybean leaf gas-exchange responses to carbon dioxide and water stress. Agron J 86:625–636. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1994.00021962008600040009x
Anderson JP (1982) Soil respiration. Methods of soil analysis. Chem Microbiol Prop 2:831–871. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojmm.2012.22005
Anderson TH, Domsch KH (1986) Carbon link between microbial biomass and soil organic matter. In: Megusar F, Gantar M (eds) Proc IV Int Symp Microb Ecol. Slovene Soc Microbiol, Ljubljana, pp 467–471
Anderson TH, Domsch KH (1989) Ratios of microbial biomass carbon to total organic carbon in arable soils. Soil Biol Biochem 214:71–479
Aslam M, Qureshi RH (1998) Fertilizer management in salt affected soils for high productivity. In: Proceeding of the symposium on "Plant Nutrition Management for Agricultural Growth". National Fertilizer Development Center, Islamabad, Pakistan, pp 89–109
Baath E, Frostegard A, Pennanen T, Fritze H (1995) Microbial community structure and pH response in relation to soil organic matter quality in wood-ash fertilized, clear-cut or burned coniferous forest soils. Soil Biol Biochem 27:229–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717(94)00140-V
Baldock JA, Nelson PN (1999) Soil organic matter. In: Sumner M (ed) Handbook of Soil Science. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp 25–84
Bardgett RD, Vander Putten WH (2014) Belowground biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Nature 515:505–511. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13855
Basga SD, Tsozue D, Temga JP, Balna J, Nguetnkam JP (2018) Land use impact on clay dispersion/ flocculation in irrigated and flooded Vertisols from northern Cameroon. Intl J Soil Water Conserv Res 6:237–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2018.03.004
Benbi DK, Brar K, Toor AS, Sharma S (2015) Sensitivity of labile soil organic carbon pools to long-term fertilizer, straw and manure management in rice-wheat system. Pedosphere 25:534–545
Benbi DK, Singh P, Toor AS, Verma G (2016) Manure and fertilizer application effects on aggregate and mineral-associated organic carbon in a loamy soil under rice-wheat system. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 47:1828–1844. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2016.1208757
Bernhard AE, Tucker J, Giblin AE, Stahl DA (2007) Functionally distinct communities of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria along an estuarine salinity gradient. Environ Microbiol 9:1439–1447. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2007.01260.x
Bethune MG, Batey TJ (2002) Impact on soil hydraulic properties resulting from irrigating saline–sodic soils with low salinity water. Aus J Exp Agric 42:273–279. https://doi.org/10.1071/EA00142
Bhardwaj AK, Mandal UK, Bar-Tal A, Gilboa A, Levy GJ (2008) Replacing saline sodic irrigation water with treated wastewater: Effects on saturated hydraulic conductivity, slaking, and swelling. Irrig Sci 26:139–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-007-0080-1
Bhardwaj AK, Jasrotia P, Hamilton SK, Robertson GP (2011) Ecological management of intensively cropped agricultural systems improves soil quality with sustained productivity. Agric Ecosys Environ 140:419–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2011.01.005
Blair GJ, Rod D, Lefroy B, Lisle L (1995) Soil carbon fractions, based on their degree of oxidation, and the development of a carbon management index for agricultural systems. Aus J Agric Res 46:1459–1466. https://doi.org/10.1071/ar9951459
Brady NC, Weil RR (2008) The nature and properties of soils, 14th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River
Bronick CJ, Lal R (2005) Soil structure and management: A review. Geoderma 124:3–22
CGWB (2020) Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation Government of India Report on ‘Aquifer Mapping and Management Plan’, Mansa District, Punjab. http://cgwb.gov.in/AQM/Punjab%20%20Report.html (Assessed on 30–03–2020, at 8.40 a.m.)
Chabbi A, Lehmann J, Ciais P, Loescher HW, Cotrufo MF, Don A, San Clements M, Schipper L, Six J, Smith P, Rumpel C (2017) Aligning agriculture and climate policy. Nat Clim Change 7:307–309
Chan BK, Morritt D, Williams GA (2001) The effect of salinity and recruitment on the distribution of Tetraclita squamosa and Tetraclita japonica (Cirripedia; Balanomorpha) in Hong Kong. Mar Biol 138:999
Chen Y, Aviad T (1990) Effects of humic substances on plant growth. In: Carthy MP, Clapp CE, Malcolm RL, Bloom PR (eds) Humic substances in soil and crop sciences: Selected readings ASA and SSSA. Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp 161–186
Choudhary M, Jat HS, Garg N, Sharma PC (2018) Microbial diversity under conservation agriculture (CA)-based management scenarios in reclaimed salt-affected soils: metagenomic approach. J Soil Salinity Water Qual 10:87–94
Chowdhury N, Nakatani AS, Setia R, Marschner P (2011) Microbial activity and community composition in saline and non-saline soils exposed to multiple drying and rewetting events. Plant Soil 348:103–113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-011-0918-4
Cong R, Lo AY (2017) Emission trading and carbon market performance in Shenzhen, China. Appl Energy 193:414–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.02.037
Czyz EA, Dexter AR (2015) Mechanical dispersion of clay from soil into water: readily-dispersed and spontaneously-dispersed clay. Int Agrophys 29:1. https://doi.org/10.1515/intag-2015-0007
Dalal RC, Eberhard E, Grantham T, Mayer DG (2003) Application of sustainability indicators, soil organic matter and electrical conductivity, to resource management in the northern grains region. Aus J Exp Agric 43:253–259. https://doi.org/10.1071/EA00186
Dalal RC, Wong VNL, Sahrawat KL (2011) Salinity and sodicity affect organic carbon dynamics in soil. Bulletin of the Indian Society of Soil Science 28:95–117
Denef KJ, Six H, Bossuyt SD, Frey E, Elliott R, Merckx K (2001) Influence of dry-wet cycles on the interrelationship between aggregate, particulate organic matter, and microbial community dynamics. Soil Biol Biochem 33:1599–1611
Elmholt S, Schjønning P, Munkholm LJ, Debosz K (2008) Soil management effects on aggregate stability and biological binding. Geoderma 144:455–467
Escadafal R, Girard MC, Courault D (1989) Munsell soil colour and soil reflectance in the visible spectral bands of Landsat MSS and TM data. Remote Sens Environ 27:37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(89)90035-7
Galinski EA (1995) Osmoadaptation in bacteria. Adv Microb Physiol 37:273–328
Garcia C, Hernandez T (1996) Influence of salinity on the biological and biochemical activity of a calciorthird soil. Plant Soil 178:255–263
Garcia-Franco N, Albaladejo J, Almagro M, Martínez-Mena M (2015) Beneficial effects of reduced tillage and green manure on soil aggregation and stabilization of organic carbon in a Mediterranean agroecosystem. Soil till Res 153:66–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2015.05.010
Garcia-Orenes F, Guerrero C, Mataix-Solera J, Navarro-Pedreño J, Gomez I, Mataix-Beneyto J (2005) Factors controlling the aggregate stability and bulk density in two different degraded soils amended with biosolids. Soil Till Res 82:65–76
Gardner WK (2004) Changes in soils irrigated with saline groundwater containing excess bicarbonate. Soil Res 42:825–831. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR03099
Ghani A, Dexter M, Perrott KW (2003) Hot-water extractable carbon in soils: a sensitive measurement for determining impacts of fertilisation, grazing and cultivation. Soil Biol Biochem 35:1231–1243. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(03)00186-X
Ghollarata M, Raiesi F (2007) The adverse effects of soil salinization on the growth of Trifolium alexandrinum L. and associated microbial and biochemical properties in a soil from Iran. Soil Biol Biochem 39:1699–1702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2007.01.024
Gunina A, Kuzyakov Y (2014) Pathways of litter C by formation of aggregates and SOM density fractions: implications from 13C natural abundance. Soil Biol Biochem 71:95–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.01.011
Guo LB, Gifford RM (2002) Soil carbon stocks and land use change: a meta-analysis. Glob Change Biol 8:345–360. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1354-1013.2002.00486.x
Hagemann M (2011) Molecular biology of cyanobacterial salt acclimation. FEMS Microbiol Rev 35:87–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6976.2010.00234.x
Hajiboland R (2013) Role of arbuscular mycorrhiza in amelioration of salinity. In: salt stress in plants pp: 301–354 Springer, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-0721-2-2
Halverson LJ, Jones TM, Firestone MK (2000) Release of intracellular solutes by four soil bacteria exposed to dilution stress. Soil Sci Soc Am J 9:1630–1637. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2000.6451630x
Haynes RJ (1999) Labile organic matter fractions and aggregate stability under short-term, grass-based leys. Soil Biol Biochem 31:1821–1830
Horn R, Smucker A (2005) Structure formation and its consequences for gas and water transport in unsaturated arable and forest soils. Soil Till Res 82:5–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2005.01.002
Igwe CA, Zarei M, Stahr K (2009) Colloidal stability in some tropical soils of south-eastern Nigeria as affected by iron and aluminium oxides. Catena 77:232–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2009.01.003
Jackson ML (1967) Soil chemical analysis. Prentice Hall of Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA
Jacoby R, Peukert M, Succurro A, Koprivova A, Kopriva S (2017) The role of soil microorganisms in plant mineral nutrition—current knowledge and future directions. Front Plant Sci 8:1617. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.01617
Jandl R, Sollins P (1997) Water extractable soil carbon in relation to the belowground carbon cycle. Biol Fertil Soils 25:196–201
Janzen HH (2015) Beyond carbon sequestration: soil as conduit of solar energy. Eur J Soil Sci 66:19–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.12194
Jiang H, Fall M (2017) Yield stress and strength of saline cemented tailings in sub-zero environments: Portland cement paste backfill. Intl J Min Process 160:68–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2017.1280428
Jiang C, Yu G, Li Y, Cao G, Yang ZP, Sheng W, Yu W (2012) Nutrient resorption of coexistence species in alpine meadow of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau explains plant adaptation to nutrient-poor environment. Ecol Engg 44:1–9
Kastner M, Miltner A (2018) SOM and microbes-What is left from microbial life. In: Garcia C, Nannipieri P, Hernandez T (eds) The future of soil carbon. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp 125–163
Kaur B, Gupta SR, Singh G (2002) Bioamelioration of a sodic soil by silvopastoral systems in northwestern India. Agrofor Sys 54:13–20. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014221306004
Klute A, Dirksen C (1986) Hydraulic conductivity and diffusivity: Laboratory methods. In: Klute A (eds) Methods of soil analysis. Part 1 - Physical and Mineralogical Methods, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, pp 687–734
Laudicina VA, Hurtado MD, Badalucco L, Delgado A, Palazzolo E, Panno M (2009) Soil chemical and biochemical properties of a salt-marsh alluvial Spanish area after long-term reclamation. Biol Fertil Soils 45:691–700. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-009-0380-0
Li XG, Li FM, Ma QF, Cui ZJ (2006) Interactions of NaCl and Na2SO4 on soil organic C mineralization after addition of maize straws. Soil Biol Biochem 38:2328–2335
Li J, Cooper JM, Li Y, Yang X, Zhao B (2015) Soil microbial community structure and function are significantly affected by long-term organic and mineral fertilization regimes in the North China Plain. Appl Soil Ecol 96:75–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2015.07.001
Liang AZ, Zhang XP, Shen Y, Li WF, Yang XM (2008) Distribution of water-stable aggregated and aggregate-associated C black in Northeast China. Chinese J Appl Ecol 5:1052–1057. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199523
Liang C, Schimel JP, Jastrow JD (2017) The importance of anabolism in microbial control over soil carbon storage. Nat Microbiol 25:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmicrobiol.2017.105
Liu W, Qiao C, Yang S, Bai W, Liu L (2018) Microbial carbon use efficiency and priming effect regulate soil carbon storage under nitrogen deposition by slowing soil organic matter decomposition. Geoderma 15:37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.07.008
Lowry OH (1951) Protein measurement with folin phenol reagent. J Biol Chem 193:265–275
Luo Z, Feng W, Luo Y, Baldock J, Wang E (2017) Soil organic carbon dynamics jointly controlled by climate, carbon inputs, soil properties and soil carbon fractions. Glob Change Biol 23:4430–4439. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13767
Malik KA, Bhatti NA, Kauser F (1979) Effect of soil salinity on decomposition and humification of organic matter by some cellulolytic fungi. Mycologia 71:811–820. https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.1979.12021074
Mamilov A, Dilly OM, Mamilov S, Inubushi K (2004) Microbial eco-physiology of degrading Aral Sea wetlands: consequences for C-cycling. Soil Sci Plant Nut 50:839–842. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380768.2004.10408544
Mandal AK, Sharma RC, Singh G (2009) Assessment of salt affected soils in India using GIS. Geocarto Int 24:437–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106040902781002
Mandal A, Toor AS, Dhaliwal SS, Singh P, Singh VK, Sharma V, Gupta RK, Naresh RK, Kumar Y, Pramanick B, Nanda G, Gaber A, Alkhedaide A, Soliman MM, Hossain A (2022) Long-term field and horticultural crops intensification in semiarid regions influence the soil physico-biochemical properties and nutrients status. Agron 12:1010. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12051010
Marschner P, Rengel Z (2012) Nutrient availability in soils. In: Marschner P (eds) Marschner's mineral nutrition of higher plants. Amsterdam, Elsevier, pp 315–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384905-2.00012-1
Muhammad S, Muller T, Joergensen RG (2006) Decomposition of pea and maize straw in Pakistani soils along a gradient in salinity. Biol Fertil Soils 43:93–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-005-0068-z
Muruganandam S, Israel DW, Robarge WP (2010) Nitrogen transformations and microbial communities in soil aggregates from three tillage systems. Soil Sci Soc Am J 74:120–129. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2009.0006
Nelson PN, Ladd JN, Oades JM (1996) Decomposition of 14C labeled plant material in a salt-affected soil. Soil Biol Biochem 28:433–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717(96)00002-8
Nguetnkam JP, Dultz S (2014) Clay dispersion in typical soils of north cameroon as a function of pH and electrolyte concentration. Land Degrad Develop 25:153–162. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1155
Nguyen MN, Dultz S, Kasbohm J, Le D (2009) Clay dispersion and its relation to surface charge in a paddy soil of the Red River Delta. Vietnam J Plant Nut Soil Sci 172:477–486. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200700217
National Land and Water Resource Audit (2001) Australian dry land salinity assessment 2000: Extent, impacts, processes, monitoring and management options. National Land and Water Resource Audit, Canberra
Oades JM (1993) The role of biology in the formation, stabilization and degradation of soil structure. In: Soil Struct/Soil Biota Interrelationships 377–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(93)90123-3
Oren A (1999) Bioenergetic aspects of halophilism. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 63:334–348
Papatheodorou EM, Argyropoulou MD, Stamou GP (2004) The effects of large-and small-scale differences in soil temperature and moisture on bacterial functional diversity and the community of bacterivorous nematodes. Appl Soil Ecol 25:37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0929-1393(03)00100-8
Pathak H, Rao DL (1998) Carbon and nitrogen mineralization from added organic matter in saline and alkali soils. Soil Biol Biochem 30:695–702. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(97)00208-3
Peinemann N, Guggenberger G, Zech W (2005) Soil organic matter and its lignin component in surface horizons of salt affected soils of the Argentinian Pampa. Catena 60:113–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2004.11.008
Pettit RE (2006) The wonderful world of humus and carbon. https://humusandcarbon.blogspot.com/14/10/202110.45am
Piper CS (1966) Soil and Plant Analysis. Hans Publisher, Bombay
Quantin C, Grunberger O, Suvannang N, Bourdon E (2008) Land management effects on biogeochemical functioning of salt-affected paddy soils. Pedosphere 18:183–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(08)60006-5
Rengasamy P (2008) Salinity in the landscape: A growing problem in Australia. Geotimes 53:34
Rengasamy P, Sumner M (1998) Processes involved in sodic behaviour. Oxford University Press
Richards LA (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. US Department of Agriculture, Handbook No. 60. P160, Washington, USA
Sardinha M, Muller T, Schmeisky H, Joergensen RG (2003) Microbial performance in soils along a salinity gradient under acidic conditions. Appl Soil Ecol 23:237–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0929-1393(03)00027-1
Schimel JP, Balser TC, Wallenstein M (2007) Microbial stress-response physiology and its implications for ecosystem function. Ecology 86:1386–1394. https://doi.org/10.1890/06-0219
Schulten HR, Schnitzer M (1995) Three-dimensional models for humic acids and soil organic matter. Natur Wiss Enschaften 82:487–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01134484
Setia R, Marschner P, Baldock J, Chittleborough D (2010) Is CO2 evolution in saline soils affected by an osmotic effect and calcium carbonate? Biol Fertil Soils 46:781–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-010-0479-3
Setia R, Marschner P, Baldock JS, Chittleborough DJ, Verma V (2011) Relationships between carbon dioxide emission and soil properties in salt affected landscapes. Soil Biol Biochem 43:667–674. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOILBIO.2010.12.004
Shahbaz M, Kuzyakov Y, Maqsood S, Wendland M, Heitkamp F (2017) Decadal nitrogen fertilization decreases mineral associated and subsoil carbon: A 32year study. Land Degrad Dev 28:1463–1472. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2667
Shahbaz M, Nasreen S, Ahmed K, Hammoudeh S (2017) Trade openness–carbon emissions nexus: the importance of turning points of trade openness for country panels. Energy Econ 61:221–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2016.11.008
Shainberg L, Letery J (1984) Response of soils to sodic and saline conditions. Hilgardia 52:1–57
Sharma RC, Mondal AK (2006) Mapping of soil salinity and sodicity using digital image analysis and GIS in irrigated lands of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Agropedol 16:71–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/23312041.2016.1213689
Sharma BD, Kumar R, Singh B, Sethi M (2009) Micronutrient distribution in salt affected soils of the Punjab in relation to soil properties. Ach Agron Soil Sci 55:367–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/03650340802552387
Sharma S, Singh P, Kumar S (2020a) Responses of soil carbon pools, enzymatic activity and crop yields to nitrogen and straw incorporation in a rice-wheat cropping system in north-western India. Front Sus Food Sys Sec Clim-Smart Food Sys. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.532704
Sharma S, Singh P, Sodhi GPS (2020b) Soil organic carbon and biological indicators of uncultivated vis-à-vis intensively cultivated soils under rice–wheat and cotton–wheat cropping systems in South-western Punjab. Carbon Manage. https://doi.org/10.1080/17583004.2020.1840891
Sharma S, Singh P, Angmo P, Dhaliwal SS (2021a) Micro-nutrient pools and their mobility in relation to land-use in a cold high altitude Himalayan mountainous region. Agrofor Sys. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-021-00623-9
Sharma S, Singh P, Choudhary OP, Neemisha, (2021b) Nitrogen and rice straw incorporation impact nitrogen use efficiency, soil nitrogen pools and enzyme activity in rice-wheat system in north-western India. Field Crops Res 266:108–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2021.108131
Sharma S, Vashisht BB, Singh P, Singh Y (2022) Changes in soil aggregate-associated carbon, enzymatic activity and biological pools under conservation agriculture based practice in rice-wheat system. Biomass Conversion Biorefinery. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-021-02144-y
Shukla SK, Singh K, Singh B, Gautam NN (2011) Biomass productivity and nutrient availability of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. growing on soils of different sodicity stress. Biomass Bioenerg 35:3440–3447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.04.027
Silveira ML, Comerford NB, Reddy KR, Cooper WT, El-Rifai H (2008) Characterization of soil organic carbon pools by acid hydrolysis. Geoderma 15:405–414
Singh P, Benbi DK (2018a) Nutrient management effects on organic carbon pools in a sandy loam soil under rice-wheat cropping. Arch Agron Soil Sci 64:1879–1891. https://doi.org/10.1080/03650340.2018.1465564
Singh P, Benbi DK (2018b) Soil organic carbon pool changes in relation to slope position and land-use in Indian lower Himalayas. Catena 166:171–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.04.006
Singh P, Benbi DK (2020a) Modeling soil organic carbon with DNDC and RothC models in different wheat-based cropping systems in north-western India. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 51:1184–1203. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2020.1751850
Singh P, Benbi DK (2020b) Nutrient management impacts on net ecosystem carbon budget and energy flow nexus in intensively cultivated cropland ecosystems of north-western India. Paddy Water Environ. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-020-00812-9
Singh P, Benbi DK (2021) Physical and chemical stabilization of soil organic matter in cropland ecosystems under rice-wheat, maize-wheat and cotton-wheat cropping systems in north-western India. Carbon Manag 12(6):603–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/17583004.2021.1992505
Singh P, Benbi DK (2023) Organic carbon in soils’ fine fraction: Thresholds in saturation capacity and its relationship with carbon stabilization. Tropical Ecol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42965-022-00288-0
Singh P, Singh G, Sodhi GPS (2019a) Energy auditing and optimization approach for improving energy efficiency of rice cultivation in south-western Punjab, India. Energy 174:269–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.02.169
Singh P, Singh G, Sodhi GPS (2019b) Applying DEA optimization approach for energy auditing in wheat cultivation under rice-wheat and cotton-wheat cropping systems in north-western India. Energy 181:18–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.05.147
Singh P, Benbi DK, Verma G (2021a) Nutrient management impacts on nutrient use efficiency and energy, carbon, and net ecosystem economic budget of rice-wheat cropping system in north-western India. J Soil Sci Plant Nut. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-020-00383-y
Singh P, Singh G, Sodhi GPS, Sharma S (2021b) Energy optimization in wheat establishment following rice residue management with Happy Seeder technology for reduced carbon foot prints in north-western India. Energy 360:120680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.120680
Six JΑ, Elliott ET, Paustian K (2000) Soil macroaggregate turnover and microaggregate formation: a mechanism for C sequestration under no-tillage agriculture. Soil Biol Biochem 32:2099–2103
Skene TM, Oades JM (1995) The effects of sodium adsorption ratio and electrolyte concentration on water quality. Soil Sci 159:65–73
Snyder JD, Trofymow JA (1984) A rapid accurate wet oxidation diffusion procedure for determining organic and inorganic carbon in plant and soil samples. Comm Soil Sci Plant Anal 15:587–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103628409367499
Sumner ME (1995) Amelioration of subsoil acidity with minimum disturbance. In: Jayawardane NS, Stewart BA (eds) Subsoil management techniques, pp. 147–185
Sun H, Li L, Lou Y, Zhao H, Yang Y, Wang S, Gao Z (2017) The bamboo aquaporin gene PeTIP4; 1–1 confers drought and salinity tolerance in transgenic Arabidopsis. Plant Cell Rep 36:597–609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-017-2106-3
Swift RS (1996) Organic matter characterization. In: Sparks DL, Page AL, Helmke PA, Loeppert RH, Soltanpour PN, Tabatabai MA, Johnston CT, Sumner ME (eds) Methods of soil analysis: Chemical methods, SSSA. Book Series 5, Soil Science Society American, Madison, pp 1011–1020
Szabolcs I (1994) Soils and salinisation. In: Pessarakli M (eds) Handbook of plant and crop stress. Marcel Dekker, New York, 3–11 pp
Tejada M, Garcia C, Gonzalez JL, Hernandez MT (2006) Use of organic amendment as a strategy for saline soil remediation: influence on the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. Soil Biol Biochem 38:1413–1421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.10.017
Tripathi S, Srinivas VV, Nanjundiah RS (2006) Downscaling of precipitation for climate change scenarios: a support vector machine approach. J Hydrol 15:621–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.030
Trivedi PM, Delgado-Baquerizo TC, Jeffries C, Trivedi IC, Anderson K (2017) Soil aggregation and associated microbial communities modify the impact of agricultural management on carbon content. Environ Microbiol 19:3070–3086. https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.13779
Van Bavel CHM (1949) Mean weight diameter of soil aggregates as a statistical index of aggregation. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 14:20–2l. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1950.036159950014000C0005x
Vance ED, Brookes PC, Jenkinson DS (1987) An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass C. Soil Biol Biochem 19:703–707. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717(87)90052-6
Vaughan D, Malcolm RE (1985) Influence of humic substances on growth and physiological processes. In: Vaughan D, Malcolm RE (Eds.). Soil Organic Matter and Biological Activity. Springer, Dordrecht 37–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-5105-1_2
Von Lutzo M, Leifeld J, Kainz M, Kogel-Knabner I, Munch JC (2002) Indications for soil organic matter quality in soils under different management. Geoderma 105:243–258
Voroney RP, Paul EA (1984) Determination of kC and kN in situ for calibration of the chloroform fumigation-incubation method. Soil Biol Biochem 16:9–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717(84)90117-2
Wagg C, Schlaeppi K, Banerjee S, Kuramae EE, van der Heijden MGA (2019) Fungal bacterial diversity and microbiome complexity predict ecosystem functioning. Nat Commun 10:4841
Walsh E, McDonnell KP (2012) The influence of added organic matter on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties: A small-scale and short-time experiment using straw. Ach Agron Soil Sci 58:201–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/03650340.2012.697999
Wang EY, Zhao YS, Chen XW (2010) Effects of seasonal freeze-thaw cycle on soil aggregate characters in typical phaeozem region of Northeast China. Chinese J Appl Ecol 21:889–894
Wang YN, Hu T, Ge Y, Kuzyakov ZL (2017) Soil aggregation regulates distributions of carbon, microbial community and enzyme activities after 23-year manure amendment. Appl Soil Ecol 111:65–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2016.11.015
Wardle DA, Ghani AA (1995) A critique of the microbial metabolic quotient (qCO2) as a bioindicator of disturbance and ecosystem development. Soil Biol Biochem 27:1601–1610
Wold S, Esbensen K, Geladi P (1987) Principal component analysis. Chemom Intell Lab Sys 2:37–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-7439(87)80084-9
Wong VNL, Murphy BW, Koen TB, Greene RSB, Dalal RC (2008) Soil organic carbon stocks in saline and sodic landscapes. Aus J Res 46:378–389. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR07160
Wong VN, Dalal RC, Greene RS (2009) Carbon dynamics of sodic and saline soils following gypsum and organic material additions: a laboratory incubation. App Soil Ecol 41:29–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2009.00251
Wong VN, Greene RS, Dalal RC, Murphy BW (2010) Soil carbon dynamics in saline and sodic soils: a review. Soil Use Manage 26:2–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2009.00251
Wright SF, Upadhyaya A (1998) A survey of soils for aggregate stability and glomalin, a glycoprotein produced by hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Plant Soil 198:97–107. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:100434770158
Yang H, Hu J, Long X, Liu Z, Rengel Z (2016) Salinity altered root distribution and increased diversity of bacterial communities in the rhizosphere soil of Jerusalem artichoke. Sci Rep 6:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep20687
Yoder RE (1936) A direct method of aggregate analysis of soils and a study of the physical nature of erosion losses. Agron J 28:337–351. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1936.00021962002800050001
Yuan BC, Li ZZ, Liu H, Gao M, Zhang YY (2007) Microbial biomass and activity in salt affected soils under arid conditions. Appl Soil Ecol 35:319–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2006.07.004
Yuan BC, Li ZZ, Liu H, Gao M, Zhang YY (2007) Microbial biomass and activity in salt affected soils under arid conditions. App Soil Ecol 35:319–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2006.07.004
Zahran HH (1997) Diversity, adaptation and activity of the bacterial flora in saline environments. Biol Fertil Soils 25:211–223
Zhang L, Xu Z (2008) Assessing bacterial diversity in soil. J Soils Sed 8:379–388