Nội dung được dịch bởi AI, chỉ mang tính chất tham khảo
Thuốc kích thích
Tóm tắt
Các loại thuốc kích thích là yếu tố quan trọng trong điều trị ADHD (Rối loạn tăng động - giảm chú ý). Các thử nghiệm được thiết kế cẩn thận về thuốc kích thích đã phát hiện thấy sự cải thiện đáng kể trong hành vi cốt lõi của ADHD ở 65–75% đối tượng mắc ADHD. Hầu hết các loại thuốc kích thích tiêu chuẩn được hấp thu nhanh, với các tác động hành vi xuất hiện trong vòng 30 phút, đạt đỉnh trong khoảng một đến ba giờ và biến mất trong vòng năm giờ. Liều dùng ở trường học thường là cần thiết, bất chấp nguy cơ bị bạn bè chế giễu và các yêu cầu giám sát thêm từ người lớn. Cơ chế mà thuốc kích thích hoạt động để giảm hoạt động thái quá vẫn chưa được hiểu rõ hoàn toàn, nhưng chúng cải thiện tính bốc đồng và mức độ hoạt động. Một số đánh giá có kiểm soát được thực hiện trong thời gian dài hơn một năm cho thấy tác dụng của thuốc rõ ràng vẫn tồn tại theo thời gian. Một chương trình điều trị được thiết kế cẩn thận với methylphenidate hiệu quả hơn trong việc giảm triệu chứng tăng động so với một chương trình can thiệp hành vi và nhận thức cường độ cao. Sự kết hợp giữa thuốc kích thích với các can thiệp tâm lý xã hội trong ADHD mang lại rất ít lợi thế hơn so với việc chỉ sử dụng thuốc. Rất khó để đề xuất các hướng dẫn thực hành không thể tranh cãi mà phù hợp ở mọi nơi. Việc các bác sĩ lâm sàng kê đơn thuốc kích thích cần phải theo dõi việc sử dụng thuốc một cách chặt chẽ, đảm bảo rằng nó không bị lạm dụng bởi gia đình, bạn bè của trẻ hoặc những người phát thuốc ở trường. Việc sử dụng đa thuốc chỉ nên được tiến hành bởi dịch vụ chuyên khoa và sự kết hợp giữa methylphenidate và clonidine cần được sử dụng một cách thận trọng. Ngoài ADHD, thuốc kích thích cũng hữu ích trong điều trị chứng ngủ rũ, trầm cảm kháng trị và các hội chứng chú ý và tăng động một phần. Vẫn còn nhiều khoảng trống trong kiến thức; dược động học, dược lực học và dược di truyền của các tác động của thuốc kích thích cần được nghiên cứu thêm. Các chi tiết về các chế độ dùng thuốc kích thích dường như có tác động lớn đến phản ứng đạt được. Cần có thêm nghiên cứu, tốt nhất là trong các bối cảnh thực hành thực tế, so sánh các hình thức kết hợp khác nhau với các can thiệp tâm lý, nghiên cứu các tác động ở nhóm trẻ em bên ngoài nhóm trẻ em đang đi học với ADHD điển hình: trẻ em ở độ tuổi mẫu giáo, người lớn, những người có hội chứng một phần (như tính không chú ý) và những người có rối loạn đồng mắc.
Từ khóa
#Thuốc kích thích #ADHD #methylphenidate #clonidine #can thiệp tâm lý xã hội #dược động học #dược lực học #rối loạn đồng mắc.Tài liệu tham khảo
Amara SG, Kuhar MJ (1993) Neurotransmitter transporters: recent progress. Annual Review of Neuroscience 16: 73–93
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (1997) Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children, adolescents and adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36 (Supplement 10): 85S-121S
Angrist BM, Gershon S (1972) Psychiatric sequelae of amphetamine use. In: Shader RI (ed) Psychiatric Complications of Medical Drugs. Raven, New York, pp 175–199
Anon (1984) Sustained release methylphenidate. The Medical Letter 26: 97–98
Arnold LE, Abikoff HB, Cantwell D et al. (1997) National Institute of Mental Health Collaborative Multimodal Treatment Study of Children With ADHD the (MTA): Design challenges and choices. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54: 865–870
Barkley RA (1990) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment. Guilford, New York
Bawden HN, MacDonald GW, Shea S (1997) Treatment of children with Williams syndrome with methylphenidate. Journal of Child Neurology 12: 248–252
Berkovitch M, Pope E, Phillips J, Koren G (1995) Pemoline-associated fulminant liver failure: testing the evidence for causation. Clinical Pharmacological Therapy 57: 696–698
Biederman J, Wilens T, Mick E, Spencer T, Faraone SV (1999) Pharmacotherapy of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder reduces risk for substance use disorder. Pediatrics 104: e20
Bosse R, Furnagalli F, Jaber M, Giros B, Gainetdinov RR et al. (1997) Anterior pituitary hypoplasia and dwarfism in mice lacking the dopamine transporter. Neurology 19: 127–138
Bradley C (1937) The behaviour of children receiving benzedrine. American Journal of Psychiatry 94: 577–585
Caldwell JA, Caldwell JL (1997) An inflight investigation of the efficacy of dextroamphetamine for sustaining helicopter pilot performance. Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine 68 (12): 1073–80
Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Elia J, Marsh WL et al. (1997) Controlled stimulant treatment of ADHD and comorbid Tourette’s syndrome: effects of stimulant and dose. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36: 589–596
Diamond IR, Tannock R, Schachar RJ (1999) Response to methylphenidate in children with ADHD and comorbid anxiety. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38: 402–409
Douglas VI, Barr RG, Amin K, O’Neill ME, Britton BG (1988) Dose effects and individual responsivity to methylphenidate in attention deficit disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 29: 453–475
Dunnick J, Hailey J (1995) Experimental studies on the long-term effects of methylphenidate hydrocloride. Toxicology 103: 77–84
DuPaul G, Barkley R, McMurray M (1994) Response of children with ADHD to methylphenidate: interaction with internalizing symptoms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33: 894–903
Elia J, Borcherding B, Rapoport J, Keysor C (1991) Methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine treatments of hyperactivity: are there true non-responders? Psychiatry Research 36: 141–155
Fitzpatrick P, Klorman R, Brumaghim J, Borgstedt A (1992) Effects of sustained-release and standard preparations of methylphenidate on attention deficit disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 31: 226–234
Fry JM (1998) Treatment modalities for narcolepsy. Neurology 50 (2 Supplement 1): S43–48
Gadow KD, Sverd J, Sprafkin J, Nolan EE, Grossman S (1999) Long-term methylphenidate therapy in children with comorbid ADHD and chronic multiple tic disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 56: 330–336
Gainetdinov RR, Westel WC, Jones SR, Levin ED et al. (1999) role of seratonin in the paradoxical claiming effect of psychostimulants on hyperactivity. Science 283: 397–401
Galynker I, Ieronimo C, Miner C, Rosenblum J, Vilkas N, Rosenthal RJ (1997) Methylphenidate treatment of negative symptoms in patients with dementia. Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 9 (2): 231–239
Gernaat HB, Haffmans PM, Knegtering H, Birkenhager TK (1995) Tranyl-cypromine in narcolepsy. Pharmacopsychiatry 28 (3): 98–100
Gillberg C, Melander H, von Knorring A-L, Janols L-O, Thernlund G, Haeggloef B, Eideval-Wallin L, Gustaffson P, Kopp S (1997) Long-term stimulant treatment of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 54: 857–864
Gittelman-Klein R, Klein D, Katz S, Saraf K, Pollack E (1976) Comparative effects of methylphenidate and thioridazine in hyperkinetic children. I. Clinical results. Archives of General Psychiatry 33: 1217–1231
Goldman L, Genei M, Bazman R, Stonetz (1998) Diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Medical Association 279: 1100–1107
Greenhill L, Abikoff H, Conners CK et al. (1996) Medication treatment strategies in the MTA: relevance to clinicians and researchers. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35: 444–454
Greenhill L, Halperin J, March J (1997) Psychostimulants. In: Tasman, A, Kay J, Lieberman J (eds) Psychiatry, Philadelphia, Saunders, pp 1659–1682
Greenhill LL, Halperin JM, Abikoff H (1999) Stimulant medication. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38: 503–512
Grob CS, Coyle JT (1986) Suspected adverse methylphenidate-imipramine interactions in children. J Dev Behav Pediatr 7: 4265–4267
Gross-Tsur V, Manor O, van der Meere J, Joseph A, Shalev RS (1997) Epilepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: is methylphenidate safe and effective? Journal of Pediatrics 130 (4): 670–674
Gualtieri CT, Ondrusek MG, Finley C (1985) Attention deficit disorder in adults. Clinical Neuropharmacology 8: 343–356
Gualtieri CT, Evans RW (1998) Stimulant treatment for the neurobehavioural sequelae of traumatic brain injury. Brain Injuries 2 (4): 273–290
Havens JF, McCaskill EO (1999) Psychostimulants in HIV-infected children and adolescents: a case series. In: Greenhill LL, Osman BB (eds) Ritalin Theory and Practice, 2nd Edition. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. New York, pp 165–173
Hechtman L, Abikoff H (1995) Multimodel treatment plus stimulants vs stimulant treatment in ADHD children: results from a two year comparative treatment study. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New Orleans, October
Hickey G, Fricker P (1999) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, CNS stimulants and sport. Sports Medicine 27: 11–21
Higgins ES (1999) A comparative analysis of antidepressants and stimulants for the treatment of adults with ADHD. Journal of Family Practitioners 48: 15–20
Hornyak JE, Nelson VS, Hurvitz EA (1997) The use of methylphenidate in pediatric traumatic brain injury. Pediatric Rehabilitation 1: 15–17
Hunt RD, Minderaa RB, Cohen DJ (1986) The therapeutic effect of clonidine in attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity: a comparison with placebo and methylphenidate. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 22 (1): 229–236
Jensen PS, Kettle L, Roper MT, Sloan MT, Dulcan MK et al. (1999) Are stimulants over-prescribed? Treatment of ADHD in four US communities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38: 797–804
Joughin C, Zwi M (1999) FOCUS on the use of stimulants in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Primary Evidence-base Briefing No 1. College Research Unit, Royal College of Psychiatrists, London
Kavale KA, Forness SR (1983) Hyperactivity and diet treatment: a meta-analysis of the Feingold hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities 16: 325–330
Klein RG, Abikoff H, Klass E, Ganeles D, Seese LM, Pollack S (1997) Clinical efficacy of methylphenidate in conduct disorder with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 54: 1073–1080
Kolko DJ, Bukstein OG, Barron J (1999) Methylphenidate and behavioural modification in children with ADHD and comorbid ODD or CD: main and incremental effects across settings. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38: 578–586
Kosten TR, Markou A, Koob GF (1998) Depression and stimulant dependence: neurobiology and pharmacotherapy. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders 186 (12): 737–745
Krupp LB, Coyle PK, Doscher C, Miller A, Cross AH, Jandorf L, Halper J, Johnson B, Morgante L, Grimson R (1995) Fatigue therapy in multiple sclerosis: results of a double-blind, randomized, parallel trial of amantadine, pemoline, and placebo. Neurology 45 (11): 1956–1961
Lichter DG, Jackson LA (1996) Predictors of clonidine response in Tourette syndrome: implications and inferences. Journal of Clinical Neurology 11 (2): 93–97
Logan BK (1996) Methamphetamine and driving impairment. Journal of Forensic Science 41 (3): 457–464
Macleod AD (1998) Methylphenidate in terminal depression. Journal of Pain Symptom Management 16 (3): 193–198
Mahalick DM, Carmel PW, Greenberg JP, Molofsky W, Brown JA, Heary RF, Marks D, Zampella E, Hodosh R, von der Schmidt E 3rd (1998) Psychopharmacologic treatment of acquired attention disorders in children with brain injury. Pediatric Neurosurgery 29 (3): 121–126
Manos MJ, Short EJ, Findling RL (1999) Differential effectiveness of methylphenidate and Adderall in school-age youths with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38: 813–818
Masand PS, Tesar GE (1996) Use of stimulants in the medically ill. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 19: 515–547
Mayer G, Ewert Meier K, Hephata K (1995) Selegeline hydrochloride treatment in narcolepsy. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Clinical Neuropharmacology 18: 306–319
McMaster University Evidence-Based Practice Center (1999) The Treatment of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: An evidence Report (contract 290-97-0017) US Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. Washington DC
Mehta MA, Owen AM, Sahakain BJ, Mavaddat N, Pickard JD, Robbins TW (2000) Methylphenidate enhances working memory by modulating discrete frontal and parietal lobe regions in the human brain. J Neurosci 20: RC65 (1–6)
MTA Cooperative Group (1999) Moderators and mediators of treatment response for children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 56: 1088–1096
MTA Cooperative Group (1999) Fourteen-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 56: 1073–1086
Musten LM, Firestone P, Pisterman S, Bennett S, Mercer J (1997) Effects of methylphenidate on preschool children with ADHD: cognitive and behavioural functions. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 15: 1047–1415
Nierenberg AA, Dougherty D, Rosenbaum JF (1998) Dopaminergic agents and stimulants as antidepressant augmentation strategies. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 59 Supplement 5: 60–63
Overmeyer S, Taylor E (1999) Principles for treating hyperkinetic disorder: practice approaches for the UK. J Child Psych Psychiatry 40: 1147–1157
Patrick KS, Mueller RA, Gualtieri CT, Breese GR (1987) Pharmokinetics and actions of methylphenidate. In: Meltzer HY (ed) Psychopharmacology: The Third Generation of Progress, 3rd ed. Raven, New York, pp 1387–1395
Pelham WE, Greenslade KE, Vodde-Hamilton MA et al. (1990) Relative efficacy of long-acting stimulants on ADHD children: a comparison of standard methylphenidate, Ritalin-SR, Dexedrine spansule, and pemoline. Pediatrics 86: 226–237
Pelham WE, Milich R (1991) Individual differences in response to Ritalin in classwork and social behavior. In: Greenhill LL, Osman B (eds) Ritalin: Theory and Patient Management. New York, Mary Ann Liebert, pp 203–222
Pelham Jr WE, Sturges J, Hoza JA, Schmidt C, Bijlsma JJ, Milich R, Moorer S (1987) Sustained release methylphenidate and standard methylphenidate: effects on cognitive and social behaviour in children with attention deficit disorder. Pediatrics 80: 491–501
Pelham WE, Aronoff HR, Midlam JK, Shapiro CJ et al. (1999) A comparison of Ritalin and Adderall: efficacy and time-course in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 103: e43
Plenger PM, Dixon CE, Castillo RM, Frankowski RF, Yablon SA, Levin HS (1996) Subacute methylphenidate treatment for moderate to moderately severe traumatic brain injury: a preliminary double-blind placebo-controlled study. Archives of Physical Medical Rehabilitation 77: 536–540
Pliszka SR (1992) Comorbidity of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and overanxious disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 31: 197–203
Plizka SR (1989) Effect of anxiety on cognition behaviour and stimulant response in ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 28: 882–887
Rapoport JL, Buchsbaum MS, Weingarter H, Zahn P, Ludlow C, Mikkelsen EJ (1980) Dextroamphetamine: cognitive and behavioural effects in normal and hyperactive boys and normal men. Archives of General Psychiatry 37: 933–943
Rapoport MD, DuPaul GJ, Kelly KL (1989) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and methylphenidate: the relationship between gross body weight and drug response in children. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 25: 285–290
Richters JE, Arnold LE, Jensen PS, Abikoff H, Conners CK et al. (1995) NIMH collaborative multisite multimodal treatment study of children with ADHD: I. Background and rationale. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34: 987–1000
Robinson LM, Sclar DA, Skaer TL, Galin RS (1999) National trends in the prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and prescribing of methylphenidate among school-age children: 1990–1995. Clinical Paediatrics 38: 209–217
Safer DJ, Allen RP (1989) Absence of tolerance to the behavioural effects of methylphenidate and inattentive children. Pediatrics 115: 1003–1008
Sannerud C, Feussner G (1999) Is Ritalin an abused drug? Does it meet the criteria for a Schedule II substance? In: Greenhill LL, Osman BB (eds) Ritalin theory and Practice, 2nd Edition. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. New York, pp 27–44
Satel SL, Nelson JC (1989) Stimulants in the treatment of depression: a critical overview. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 50: 241–249
Schachar RJ, Tannock R, Cunningham C, Corkum PV (1997) Behavioural, situational, and temporal effects of treatment of ADHD with methylphenidate. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36: 754–763
Schachar RJ, Ickowicz A, Tannock R (2000) Pharmacotherapy of ADHD. In: Quay H, Hogan E (eds) Handbook of Disruptive Behaviour Disorders. Plenum, New York, pp 555–565
Sokol MS, Gray NS, Goldstein A, Kaye WH (1999) Methylphenidate treatment for bulemia nervosa associated with a cluster B personality disorder. International Journal of Eating Disorders 25: 233–237
Solanto MV, Wender EH, Bartell SS (1997) Effects of methylphenidate and behavioural contingencies on sustained attention in ADHD: a test of the reward dysfunction hypothesis. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 7: 123–136
Solanto MV (1998) Neuropsychopharmacological mechanisms of stimulant drug action in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a review and integration. Behaviour Brain Research 94: 127–152
Speech TJ, Rao SM, Osmon DC, Sperry LT (1993) A double-blind controlled study of methylphenidate treatment in closed head injury. Brain Injuries 7: 333–338
Spencer T, Biederman J, Wilens T, Harding M, O’Donnell D, Griffin S (1996a) Pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit disorder across the life-cycle. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35: 409–432
Spencer T, Biederman J, Harding M, O’Donnell D, Farone SV, Wilens TE (1996) Growth deficits in ADHD children revisited: evidence for disorder-associated growth delays? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35: 1460–1469
Swanson JM, McBurnett K, Wigal T, Pfiffner LJ, Lerner MA, Williams L, Christian DL, Tamm L, Willcutt E, Crowley K, Clevenger W, Khouzam N, Woo C, Crinella FM, Fisher TD (1993) Effect of stimulant medication on children with attention deficit disorder: a “review of reviews”. Exceptional Children 60: 154–162
Swanson JM, Flockhart D, Udrea D, Cantwell D, Connor D, Williams L (1995) Clonidine in the treatment of ADHD: questions about safety and efficacy: Letter to the Editor. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 5: 301–304
Swanson JM, Wigal S, Greenhill LL, Brown R et al. (1998) Analog classroom assessment of Adderall in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 37: 519–526
Swanson JM, Conner DF, Cantwell D (1999) Combining Methylphenidate and Clonidine: III-advised. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38: 617–619
Tannock R, Ickowicz, Schachar R (1995) Differential effects of MPG on working memory in ADHD children with and without comorbid anxiety: Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34: 886–896
Tannock T, Schachar, Logan GD (1995) Methylphenidate and cognitive flexibility: dissociated dose effects in hyperactive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23: 235–267
Taylor D, Ho BT (1978) Comparison of inhibition of monoamine uptake by cocaine, methylphenidate and amphetamine. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol, 21: 67–75
Taylor E, Schachar R, Thorley G, Wieselberg HM, Everitt B, Rutter M (1987) Which boys respond to stimulant medication? A controlled trial of methylphenidate in boys with disruptive behaviour. Psychol Med 17: 121–143
Taylor E, Sandberg S, Thorley G, Giles S (1991) The epidemiology of childhood hyperactivity. Maudsley Monographs 33. Oxford, Oxford University Press
Taylor E (1994) Syndromes of attention deficit and overactivit. In: Rutter M, Taylor E, Hersov L (eds) Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Modern Approaches. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp 285–307
Taylor E, Sergeant J, Doefner M, Gunning B, Overmeyer S, Mobius HJ, Eisert H (1998) Guidelines for treatment of hyperkinetic disorders. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 7: 184–200
Thurber S, Walker C (1983) Medication and hyperactivity; a meta-analysis. Journal of General Psychiatry 108: 79–86
US Modafinil in Narcolepsy Multicenter Study Group (1998) Randomized trial of modafinil for the treatment of pathological somnolence in narcolepsy. Annals of Neurology 43: 88–97
Vaidya CJ, Austin G, Kirkorian G, Ridlehuber HW, Desmond JE, Glorer GH, Gabrieli JD (1998) Selective effects of methylphenidate in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a functional magnetic resonance study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 95: 14494–14499
van Dyck CH, McMahon TJ, Rosen MI, O’Malley SS, O’Connor PG, Lin CH, Pearsall HR, Woods SW, Kosten TR (1997) Sustained-release methylpheni-date for cognitive impairment in HIV-1-infected drug abusers: a pilot study. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 9: 29–36
Vance ALA, Luk ESL, Costin J, Tonge BJ, Pantelis C (1999) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: anxiety phenomena in children treated with psychostimulant medication for 6 months or more. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 33: 399–406
Volkow N, Wang G, Fowler J, Galley SJ, LOgan J, Ding YS, Hitzemann R, Dappas N (1998) Dopamine transporter occupancies in the human brain induced by therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate. Americal Journal of Psychiatry 155: 1325–1331
Wagner GJ, Rabkin JG, Rabkin R (1997) Dextroamphetamine as a treatment for depression and low energy in AIDS patients: a pilot study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 42: 407–411
Warneke L (1990) Psychostimulants in psychiatry. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 35: 3–10
Whalen C, Henker B, Buhrmester D, Hinshaw S, Huber A, Laski K (1998) Does stimulant medication improve the peer status of hyperactive children? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 57: 545–549
Whitehouse D, Shah U, Palmer FB (1980) Comparison of sustained release methylphenidate in the treatment of minimal brain dysfunction. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 41: 282–285
Whyte J, Hart T, Schuster K, Fleming M, Polansky M, Coslett HB (1997) Effects of methylphenidate on attentional function after traumatic brain injury. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. American Journal of Physical Medical Rehabilitation 76: 440–450
Wilens TE, Biedermann J (1992) The Stimulants. Psychiatric Clinics of North America. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, Pa. pp 191–222
Wilens TE, Biederman J, Spencer TJ, Frazier J et al. (1999) Controlled trial of high doses of pemoline for adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 19: 257–264
Wilens TE, Spencer TJ (1999) Combining methylphenidate and clonidine: A clinically sound medication option. J Am Acad Child & Adolesc Psychiatry, 38: 614–616
Wise MS (1998) Childhood narcolepsy. Neurology 50 (2 Suppl 1): S37–42
Wroblewski B, Leary J, Phelan A, Whyte J, Manning K. (1992) Methylphenidate and seizure frequency in brain injured patients with seizure disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 53: 86–89