Spatiotemporal characterization of megaregional poly-centrality: Evidence for new urban hypotheses and implications for polycentric policies

ADB (Asian Development Bank), 2009 Aguilera, 2004, Urban sprawl, polycentrism and commuting. A comparison of seven French urban areas, Urban Public Econ. Rev., 93 Alvarez-Socorro, 2015, Eigencentrality based on dissimilarity measures reveals central nodes in complex networks, Sci. Rep., 5, 17095, 10.1038/srep17095 Anas, 1998, Urban spatial structure, J. Econ. Lit., 36, 1426 Arndt, 2000, Regional policy through co-operation: from urban forum to urban network, Urban Stud., 37, 1903, 10.1080/00420980050162157 Batty, 2008, The size, scale, and shape of cities, Science, 319, 769, 10.1126/science.1151419 Batty, 1994 Bavelas, 1950, Communication patterns in task‐oriented groups, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 22, 725, 10.1121/1.1906679 Beaverstock, 2000, World-city network: a new metageography?, Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., 90, 123, 10.1111/0004-5608.00188 Berry, 1980, Urbanization and counterurbanization in the United States, Ann. Am. Acad. Polit. Soc. Sci., 451, 13, 10.1177/000271628045100103 Berry, 1993, Challenges to the monocentric model, Geogr. Anal., 25, 1, 10.1111/j.1538-4632.1993.tb00275.x BMCUP (Beijing Municipal Commission of Urban Planning), 2017 Boyce, 1966, The edge of the metropolis: the wave theory analog approach, Br. Columbia Geogr. Ser., 7, 31 Burger, 2011, Heterogeneous development of metropolitan spatial structure: evidence from commuting patterns in English and Welsh city-regions, 1981-2001, Cities, 28, 160, 10.1016/j.cities.2010.11.006 Burger, 2014, Polycentricity and the multiplexity of urban networks, Eur. Plan. Stud., 22, 816, 10.1080/09654313.2013.771619 Caruso, 2017, Measuring urban forms from inter-building distances: combining MST graphs with a local index of spatial association, Landsc. Urban Plan., 163, 80, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.03.003 Cervero, 1997, Polycentrism, commuting, and residential location in the San Francisco Bay area, Environ. Plan. A, 29, 865, 10.1068/a290865 Chen, 2005, The study and application on visual spatial clustering, Geo-Inform. Sci., 7, 89 Clarke, 1997, A self-modifying cellular automation model of historical urbanization in the San Francisco Bay area, Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des., 24, 247, 10.1068/b240247 Comin, 2013, The capture and diffusion of knowledge spillovers: the influence of position of cities in a network, 177 De Goei, 2010, Functional polycentrism and urban network development in the Greater South East, United Kingdom: evidence from commuting patterns, 1981-2001, Reg. Stud., 44, 1149, 10.1080/00343400903365102 Dietzel, 2005, Spatio-temporal dynamics in California’s Central Valley: empirical links to urban theory, Int. J. Geogr. Inform. Sci., 19, 175, 10.1080/13658810410001713407 Dietzel, 2005, Diffusion and coalescence of the houston metropolitan area: evidence supporting a new urban theory, Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des., 32, 231, 10.1068/b31148 Dijkstra, 1959, A note on two problems in connexion with graphs, Numerische Mathematik, 1, 269, 10.1007/BF01386390 Ding, 2013, Research on choosing sub-regional central cities of Hebei Province, Geogr. Geo-Inform. Sci., 29, 83 Ducruet, 2013, Ports in a world maritime system: a multilevel analysis, 121 Eastman, 2009 ESRI, 2012 Fall, 2007, Spatial graphs: principles and applications for habitat connectivity, Ecosystems, 10, 448, 10.1007/s10021-007-9038-7 Fielding, 1982, Counterurbanisation in Western Europe, Prog. Plan., 17, 1, 10.1016/0305-9006(82)90006-X Florida, 2008, The rise of the mega-region, Camb. J. Reg. Econ. Soc., 1, 459, 10.1093/cjres/rsn018 Floyd, 1962, Algorithm 97: shortest path, Commun. ACM, 5, 345, 10.1145/367766.368168 Freeman, 1977, A set of measures of centrality based on betweenness, Sociometry, 40, 35, 10.2307/3033543 George, 2001, Wrestling sprawl to the ground: defining and measuring an elusive concept, Hous. Policy Debate, 12, 681, 10.1080/10511482.2001.9521426 Giuliano, 1991, Subcenters in the Los Angeles region, Reg. Sci. Urban Econ., 21, 163, 10.1016/0166-0462(91)90032-I Gordon, 1986, The distribution of population and employment in a polycentric city: the case of Los Angeles, Environ. Plan. A, 18, 161, 10.1068/a180161 Gordon, 1991, The commuting paradox evidence from the top twenty, J. Am. Plan. Assoc., 57, 416, 10.1080/01944369108975516 Green, 2007, Functional polycentricity: a formal definition in terms of social network analysis, Urban Stud., 44, 2077, 10.1080/00420980701518941 Griffith, 1981, Modelling urban population density in a multi-centered city, J. Urban Econ., 9, 298, 10.1016/0094-1190(81)90029-2 Guimerà, 2005, The worldwide air transportation network: anomalous centrality, community structure, and cities’ global roles, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 102, 7794, 10.1073/pnas.0407994102 Hajrasouliha, 2017, The typology of the American metropolis: monocentricity, polycentricity, or generalized dispersion?, Urban Geogr., 38, 420, 10.1080/02723638.2016.1165386 Hall, 2006, From metropolis to polyopolis, 3 Hennemann, 2014, An alternative approach to the calculation and analysis of connectivity in the world city network, Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des., 41, 392, 10.1068/b39108 Jiao, 2017, Impacts of high-speed rail lines on the city network in China, J. Transp. Geogr., 60, 257, 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.03.010 Katz, 1953, A new status index derived from sociometric analysis, Psychometrika, 18, 39, 10.1007/BF02289026 Kramar, 2013, Polycentric city networks in Central-Eastern Europe: existing concepts and empirical findings, Geogr. Polonica, 86, 183, 10.7163/GPol.2013.18 Krings, 2009, Urban gravity: a model for inter-city telecommunication flows, J. Stat. Mech. Theor. Exp., 2009, 10.1088/1742-5468/2009/07/L07003 Kruskal, 1956, On the shortest spanning subtree of a graph and the traveling salesman problem, Proc. Am. Math. Soc., 7, 48, 10.1090/S0002-9939-1956-0078686-7 Lambregts, 2006, Randstad Holland: multiple faces of a polycentric role model, 137 Lee, 2007, “Edge” or “edgeless” cities? Urban spatial structure in US metropolitan areas, 1980 to 2000, J. Reg. Sci., 47, 479, 10.1111/j.1467-9787.2007.00517.x Liu, 2016, How polycentric is urban China and why? A case study of 318 cities, Landsc. Urban Plan., 151, 10, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.03.007 Liu, 2010, A new landscape index for quantifying urban expansion using multi-temporal remotely sensed data, Landsc. Ecol., 25, 671, 10.1007/s10980-010-9454-5 Liu, 2016, Measuring polycentric urban development in China: an intercity transportation network perspective, Reg. Stud., 50, 1302, 10.1080/00343404.2015.1004535 Lv, 2011, Monitoring of the urban sprawl using geoprocessing tools in the Shenzhen Municipality, China, Environ. Earth Sci., 62, 1131, 10.1007/s12665-010-0602-7 Mansury, 2015, Size, connectivity, and tipping in spatial networks: theory and empirics, Comput. Environ. Urban Syst., 54, 428, 10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2015.08.004 Masucci, 2013, Gravity versus radiation models: on the importance of scale and heterogeneity in commuting flows, Phys. Rev. E, 88, 022812, 10.1103/PhysRevE.88.022812 McDonald, 1987, The identification of urban employment subcenters, J. Urban Econ., 21, 242, 10.1016/0094-1190(87)90017-9 McDonald, 1990, Employment subcenters and land values in a polycentric urban area: the case of Chicago, Environ. Plan. A, 22, 1561, 10.1068/a221561 McDonald, 1994, Suburban employment centres: the case of Chicago, Urban Stud., 31, 201, 10.1080/00420989420080201 McMillen, 2003, Identifying sub-centres using contiguity matrices, Urban Stud., 40, 57, 10.1080/00420980220080161 McMillen, 2003, The number of subcenters in large urban areas, J. Urban Econ., 53, 321, 10.1016/S0094-1190(03)00026-3 Meentemeyer, 2013, FUTURES: multilevel simulations of emerging urban-rural landscape structure using a stochastic patch-growing algorithm, Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., 103, 785, 10.1080/00045608.2012.707591 Meijers, 2008, Measuring polycentricity and its promises, Eur. Plan. Stud., 16, 1313, 10.1080/09654310802401805 Meijers, 2010, Spatial structure and productivity in US metropolitan areas, Environ. Plan. A, 42, 1383, 10.1068/a42151 Mitchell, 2005, 88 NDRC (National Development and Reform Commission), 2010 NDRC (National Development and Reform Commission), 2016 Northam, 1963, Declining urban centers in the United States: 1940-1960, Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr., 53, 50, 10.1111/j.1467-8306.1963.tb00432.x Ortega, 2015, Mega-regions in the Philippines: accounting for special economic zones and global-local dynamics, Cities, 48, 130, 10.1016/j.cities.2015.07.002 Ostrom, 1981, Polycentricity, 52 Ostrom, 2010, Polycentric systems for coping with collective action and global environmental change, Glob. Environ. Change, 20, 550, 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.07.004 Pain, 2006, South East England: global constellation, 125 Pickard, 2017, Comparing quantity, allocation and configuration accuracy of multiple land change models, Land, 6, 52, 10.3390/land6030052 Piraveenan, 2013, Percolation centrality: quantifying graph-theoretic impact of nodes during percolation in networks, PloS One, 8, e53095, 10.1371/journal.pone.0053095 Polanyi, 1951, 154 Pontius, 2006 Rozenblat, 2013, A small world perspective on urban systems, 431 RPA (Regional Plan Association), 2006 RPA (Regional Plan Association), 2008 Schneider, 2008, Compact, dispersed, fragmented, extensive? A comparison of urban growth in twenty-five global cities using remotely sensed data, pattern metrics and census information, Urban Stud., 45, 659, 10.1177/0042098007087340 SEERA (South East England Regional Assembly), 2005 Su, 2017, China’s megaregion policy: performance evaluation framework, empirical findings and implications for spatial polycentric governance, Land Use Policy, 63, 1, 10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.01.014 Sun, 2016, Scenario simulation and landscape pattern dynamic changes of land use in the poverty belt around Beijing and Tianjin: a case study of Zhangjiakou city, Hebei Province, J. Geogr. Sci., 26, 272, 10.1007/s11442-016-1268-1 Sun, 2018, Spatiotemporal dynamics of urban expansion in 13 cities across the Jing-Jin-Ji Urban agglomeration from 1978 to 2015, Ecol. Indic., 87, 302, 10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.12.038 Sýkora, 2009, City regions and polycentric territorial development: concept and practice, Urban Res. Pract., 2, 233, 10.1080/17535060903319095 Taylor, 2008, Application of the interlocking network model to mega-city-regions: measuring polycentricity within and beyond city-regions, Reg. Stud., 42, 1079, 10.1080/00343400701874214 Tsai, 2005, Quantifying urban form: compactness versus ‘sprawl’, Urban Stud., 42, 141, 10.1080/0042098042000309748 Tullock, 1965 Urban, 2001, Landscape connectivity: a graph-theoretic perspective, Ecology, 82, 1205, 10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[1205:LCAGTP]2.0.CO;2 Van der Laan, 1998, Changing urban systems: an empirical analysis at two spatial levels, Reg. Stud., 32, 235, 10.1080/00343409850119733 Vasanen, 2013, Spatial integration and functional balance in polycentric urban systems: a multi-scalar approach, Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 104, 410, 10.1111/tesg.12029 Vile, 1967 Wasserman, 1994 Wen, 2016, Identification, structure and dynamic characteristics of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei mega-city region, Camb. J. Reg. Econ. Soc., 9, 589 Wu, 2007 Wu, 2016 Wu, 2011, Quantifying spatiotemporal patterns of urbanization: the case of the two fastest growing metropolitan regions in the United States, Ecol. Complex., 8, 1, 10.1016/j.ecocom.2010.03.002 Wu, 2013, Comprehensive delimitation and ring identification on urban spatial radiation of regional central cities: case study of Zhengzhou, J. Urban Plan. Dev., 139, 258, 10.1061/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000120 Yang, 2014, Measuring spatial structure of China’s megaregions, J. Urban Plan. Dev., 141, 10.1061/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000207 Yu, 2007, Spatial and temporal dynamics of urban sprawl along two urban-rural transects: a case study of Guangzhou, China, Landsc. Urban Plan., 79, 96, 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.03.008 Yue, 2010, Polycentric urban development: the case of Hangzhou, Environ. Plan. A, 42, 563, 10.1068/a42116 Zhang, 2016, Determinants of urban expansion and their relative importance: a comparative analysis of 30 major metropolitans in China, Habitat Int., 58, 89, 10.1016/j.habitatint.2016.10.003 Zhao, 2011, Polycentric network organization of mega-city regions in Yangtze River Delta, Procedia Earth Planet. Sci., 2, 309, 10.1016/j.proeps.2011.09.048 Zhao, 2017, Polycentric development in China’s mega-city regions, 2001-08: a comparison of Yangtze and Pearl River Deltas, DIE ERDE–J. Geogr. Soc. Berlin, 148, 1 Zhen, 2013, An empirical study on Chinese city network pattern based on producer services, Chin. Geogr. Sci., 23, 274, 10.1007/s11769-013-0595-8