Somatic embryogenesis in conifers

Substantial progress has been made towards the development of systems for in vitro embryogenesis in conifers. Since the first report of somatic embryogenesis from zygotic embryos of Picea abies in 1985, cultured explants of at least 18 different coniferous species have been induced to produce somatic embryos. Somatic embryos have been cryopreserved, grown in liquid suspensions, and matured into plants. In addition, plantlets have been regenerated from protoplasts isolated from embryogenic suspensions of Picea glauca and Larix ×eurolepis, permitting studies into direct gene transfer and somatic hybridization. Currently however, it is only possible to obtain somatic embryogenesis from embryonic and juvenile explants. Furthermore, for most species the efficiency of plantlet production from somatic embryos is poor and remains a problem for the commercial utilization of this technology. Biochemical, cytological, and physiological studies of conifer somatic embryogenesis have resulted in improved knowledge concerning the origin of somatic embryos, storage product accumulation during embryo development, and similarities with zygotic embryos. Furthermore, the technique of indirect immunofluorescence microscopy has permitted investigations of the cytoskeleton in conifer cells and protoplasts, providing insights into cell division and morphogenesis. In this review, emphasis is placed on the more fundamental aspects of conifer somatic embryogenesis. Where possible, comparisons between zygotic and somatic embryogenesis are made. Key words: somatic embryogenesis, zygotic embryogenesis, conifers, review.