Socio-cultural norms of body size in Westerners and Polynesians affect heart rate variability and emotion during social interactions

Culture and Brain - Tập 7 - Trang 26-56 - 2018
Anne Schrimpf1, Stephen McGarvey2, Daniel Haun3, Jana Kube1,4,5, Arno Villringer1,4,6,7, Michael Gaebler1,7,8
1Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
2International Health Institute, Department of Epidemiology, Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, USA
3Leipzig Research Center Early Child Development (LFE), Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
4Leipzig University Medical Center, IFB Adiposity Diseases, Leipzig, Germany
5Faculty 5 – Business, Law and Social Sciences, Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus–Senftenberg, Cottbus, Germany
6Clinic of Cognitive Neurology, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
7MindBrainBody Institute at the Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
8Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases (LIFE), Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany

Tóm tắt

The perception of body size and thus weight-related stigmatization vary between cultures. Both are stronger in Western than in Polynesian societies. Negative emotional experiences alter one’s behavioral, psychological, and physiological reactions in social interactions. This study compared affective and autonomic nervous system responses to social interactions in Germany and American Samoa, two societies with different body-size related norms. German (n = 55) and Samoan (n = 56) volunteers with and without obesity participated in a virtual ball-tossing game that comprised episodes of social inclusion and social exclusion. During the experiment, heart rate was measured and parasympathetic activity (i.e., high-frequency heart rate variability) was analyzed. We found differences in both emotional experience and autonomic cardio-regulation between the two cultures: during social inclusion, Germans but not Samoans showed increased parasympathetic activity. In Germans with obesity, this increase was related to a more negative body image (comprising high rates of weight-related teasing). During social exclusion, Samoans showed parasympathetic withdrawal regardless of obesity status, while Germans with obesity showed a stronger increase in parasympathetic activity than lean Germans. Furthermore, we found fewer obesity-related differences in emotional arousal after social exclusion in Samoans as compared to Germans. Investigating the interplay of socio-cultural, psychological, and biological aspects, our results suggest influences of body size-related socio-cultural norms on parasympathetic cardio-regulation and negative emotions during social interactions.

Tài liệu tham khảo

Agelink, M. W., Malessa, R., Baumann, B., Majewski, T., Akila, F., Zeit, T., et al. (2001). Standardized tests of heart rate variability: Normal ranges obtained from 309 healthy humans, and effects of age, gender, and heart rate. Clinical Autonomic Research, 11(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02322053. Alleva, J. M., Lange, W.-G., Jansen, A., & Martijn, C. (2014). Seeing ghosts: Negative body evaluation predicts overestimation of negative social feedback. Body Image, 11(3), 228–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.03.001. Anderson-Fye, E. P. (2012). Anthropological perspectives on physical appearance and body image. In T. F. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance (Vol. 1, pp. 15–22). San Diego: Academic Press. Barreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2015). Chapter three—Detecting and experiencing prejudice: New answers to old questions. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 52, 139–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.02.001. Barrett, L. F. (2012). Emotions are real. Emotion, 12(3), 413–429. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027555. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497. Beauchaine, T. (2001). Vagal tone, development, and Gray’s motivational theory: Toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system functioning in psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 13(2), 183–214. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579401002012. Becker, A. E. (1995). Body, self, and society: The view from Fiji. Incorporated: University of Pennsylvania Press. Becker, A. E. (2004). Television, disordered eating, and young women in Fiji: Negotiating body image and identity during rapid social change. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 28(4), 533–559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11013-004-1067-5. Bergey, M. R., Steele, M. S., Bereiter, D. A., Viali, S., & McGarvey, S. T. (2011). Behavioral and perceived stressor effects on urinary catecholamine excretion in adult samoans. American Journal of Human Biology, 23(5), 693–702. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.21198. Berna, G., Ott, L., & Nandrino, J. L. (2014). Effects of emotion regulation difficulties on the tonic and phasic cardiac autonomic response. PLoS ONE, 9(7), e102971. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102971. Billman, G. (2013). The LF/HF ratio does not accurately measure cardiac sympatho-vagal balance. Frontiers in Physiology, 4, 26. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2013.00026. Blackhart, G. C., Nelson, B. C., Knowles, M. L., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). Rejection elicits emotional reactions but neither causes immediate distress nor lowers self-esteem: A meta-analytic review of 192 studies on social exclusion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13(4), 269–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309346065. Blodorn, A., Major, B., Hunger, J., & Miller, C. (2016). Unpacking the psychological weight of weight stigma: A rejection-expectation pathway. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 63, 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2015.12.003. Bond, R., & Smith, P. B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 111–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.111. Booth, H. (1999). Pacific Island suicide in comparative perspective. Journal of Biosocial Science, 31(4), 433–448. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0021932099004332. Borkenau, P., & Ostendorf, F. (1993). NEO-FFI: NEO-Fünf-Faktoren Inventar nach Costa und McCrae. Göttingen: Hogrefe. Brewis, A. A., & McGarvey, S. T. (2000). Body image, body size, and Samoan ecological and individual modernization. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 39(2), 105–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/03670244.2000.9991609. Brewis, A. A., McGarvey, S. T., Jones, J., & Swinburn, B. A. (1998). Perceptions of body size in Pacific Islanders. International Journal of Obesity, 22(2), 185–189. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0800562. Brewis, A. A., & Wutich, A. (2014). A world of suffering? Biocultural approaches to fat stigma in the global contexts of the obesity epidemic. Annals of Anthropological Practice, 38(2), 269–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/napa.12056. Brewis, A. A., Wutich, A., Falletta-Cowden, A., & Rodriguez-Soto, I. (2011). Body norms and fat stigma in global perspective. Current Anthropology, 52(2), 269–276. https://doi.org/10.1086/659309. Brown, P. J., & Konner, M. (1987). An anthropological perspective on obesity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 499, 29–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb36195.x. Burr, R. L. (2007). Interpretation of normalized spectral heart rate variability indices in sleep research: A critical review. Sleep, 30(7), 913–919. Butler, E. A., Lee, T. L., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Emotion regulation and culture: Are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific? Emotion, 7(1), 30. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.30. Butler, E. A., Wilhelm, F. H., & Gross, J. J. (2006). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, emotion, and emotion regulation during social interaction. Psychophysiology, 43(6), 612–622. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00467.x. Charles, S. T., & Piazza, J. R. (2007). Memories of social interactions: Age differences in emotional intensity. Psychology and Aging, 22(2), 300–309. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.22.2.300. Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404. Cooper, P. J., Taylor, M. J., Cooper, Z., & Fairbum, C. G. (1987). The development and validation of the body shape questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 6(4), 485–494. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-108X(198707)6:4<485:AID-EAT2260060405>3.0.CO;2-O. Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Professional manual: revised NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO five-factor inventory (NEO-FFI) (Vol. 3, p. 101). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. https://doi.org/10.1037//1040-3590.4.1.5. Craig, P., Halavatau, V., Comino, E., & Caterson, I. (1999). Perception of body size in the Tongan community: Differences from and similarities to an Australian sample. International Journal of Obesity, 23, 1288–1294. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801069. Crivelli, C., Russell, J. A., Jarillo, S., & Fernández-Dols, J.-M. (2016). The fear gasping face as a threat display in a Melanesian society. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(44), 12403–12407. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1611622113. Crocker, J., Cornwell, B., & Major, B. (1993). The stigma of overweight: Affective consequences of attributional ambiguity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(1), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.1.60. De Koning, L., Merchant, A. T., Pogue, J., & Anand, S. S. (2007). Waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio as predictors of cardiovascular events: Meta-regression analysis of prospective studies. European Heart Journal, 28(7), 850–856. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehm026. Denver, J. W., Reed, S. F., & Porges, S. W. (2007). Methodological issues in the quantification of respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 286–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.09.005. Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327. Filipkowski, K. B., & Smyth, J. M. (2012). Plugged in but not connected: Individuals’ views of and responses to online and in-person ostracism. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(4), 1241–1253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.02.007. Fliege, H., Rose, M., Arck, P., Levenstein, S., & Klapp, B. F. (2001). Validierung des “perceived stress questionnaire“(PSQ) an einer deutschen Stichprobe. Diagnostica, 47(3), 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1026//0012-1924.47.3.142. Furnham, A., Moutafi, J., & Baguma, P. (2002). A cross-cultural study on the role of weight and waist-to-hip ratio on female attractiveness. Personality and Individual Differences, 32(4), 729–745. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00073-3. Garner, D. M. (1991). Eating disorder inventory-2. Odessa: Psychological assessment resources. Gerber, E. R. (1985). Rage and obligation: Samoan emotions in conflict. In G. M. White & J. Kirkpatrick (Eds.), Person, self and experience: Exploring Pacific ethnopsychologies (pp. 121–167). Berkeley: University of California Press. Gerber, J., & Wheeler, L. (2009). On being rejected: A meta-analysis of experimental research on rejection. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(5), 468–488. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01158.x. Gonsalkorale, K., & Williams, K. D. (2007). The KKK won’t let me play: Ostracism even by a despised outgroup hurts. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37(6), 1176–1186. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.392. Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348. Grossman, P., & Taylor, E. W. (2007). Toward understanding respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Relations to cardiac vagal tone, evolution and biobehavioral functions. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 263–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.11.014. Gunther Moor, B., Bos, M. G. N., Crone, E. A., & van der Molen, M. W. (2014). Peer rejection cues induce cardiac slowing after transition into adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 50(3), 947–955. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033842. Gunther Moor, B., Crone, E. A., & van der Molen, M. W. (2010). The heartbrake of social rejection: Heart rate deceleration in response to unexpected peer rejection. Psychological Science, 21(9), 1326–1333. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610379236. Gupta, M. A., Chaturvedi, S. K., Chandarana, P. C., & Johnson, A. M. (2001). Weight-related body image concerns among 18–24-year-old women in Canada and India: An empirical comparative study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 50(4), 193–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(00)00221-X. Hardin, J. (2015). Christianity, fat talk, and Samoan pastors: Rethinking the fat-positive-fat-stigma framework. Fat Studies, 4(2), 178–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/21604851.2015.1015924. Hartgerink, C. H., Van Beest, I., Wicherts, J. M., & Williams, K. D. (2015). The ordinal effects of ostracism: A meta-analysis of 120 Cyberball studies. PLoS ONE, 10(5), e0127002. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127002. Hartung, F.-M., & Renner, B. (2013). Perceived and actual social discrimination: The case of overweight and social inclusion. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 147. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00147. Hebl, M. R., King, E. B., & Perkins, A. (2009). Ethnic differences in the stigma of obesity: Identification and engagement with a thin ideal. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(6), 1165–1172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.017. Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2–3), 61–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x0999152x. Holzman, J. B., & Bridgett, D. J. (2017). Heart rate variability indices as bio-markers of top-down self-regulatory mechanisms: A meta-analytic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 74(Part A), 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.032. Iffland, B., Sansen, L. M., Catani, C., & Neuner, F. (2014). Rapid heartbeat, but dry palms: Reactions of heart rate and skin conductance levels to social rejection. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 956. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00956. Immordino-Yang, M. H., & Yang, X. F. (2017). Cultural differences in the neural correlates of social–emotional feelings: An interdisciplinary, developmental perspective. Current Opinion in Psychology, 17, 34–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.06.008UR. Immordino-Yang, M. H., Yang, X. F., & Damasio, H. (2016). Cultural modes of expressing emotions influence how emotions are experienced. Emotion, 16(7), 1033–1039. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000201. Jönsson, P., & Hansson-Sandsten, M. (2008). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia in response to fear-relevant and fear-irrelevant stimuli. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49(2), 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00638.x. Jönsson, P., & Sonnby-Borgström, M. (2003). The effects of pictures of emotional faces on tonic and phasic autonomic cardiac control in women and men. Biological Psychology, 62(2), 157–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-0511(02)00114-X. Kaiser, C. R., Vick, S. B., & Major, B. (2006). Prejudice expectations moderate preconscious attention to cues that are threatening to social identity. Psychological Science, 17(4), 332–338. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01707.x. Klein, E. M., Brähler, E., Dreier, M., Reinecke, L., Müller, K. W., Schmutzer, G., et al. (2016). The German version of the Perceived Stress Scale—psychometric characteristics in a representative German community sample. BMC Psychiatry, 16(159), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0875-9. Koenig, J., & Thayer, J. (2016). Sex differences in healthy human heart rate variability: A meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 64, 288–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.007. Kronenfeld, L. W., Reba-Harrelson, L., Von Holle, A., Reyes, M. L., & Bulik, C. M. (2010). Ethnic and racial differences in body size perception and satisfaction. Body Image, 7(2), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.11.002. Kube, J., Schrimpf, A., Garcia-Garcia, I., Villringer, A., Neumann, J., & Horstmann, A. (2016). Differential heart rate responses to social and monetary reinforcement in women with obesity. Psychophysiology, 53, 868–879. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12624. Labouvie-Vief, G., Lumley, M. A., Jain, E., & Heinze, H. (2003). Age and gender differences in cardiac reactivity and subjective emotion responses to emotional autobiographical memories. Emotion, 3(2), 115–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.3.2.115. Lear, S. A., James, P. T., Ko, G. T., & Kumanyika, S. (2010). Appropriateness of waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio cutoffs for different ethnic groups. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 64, 42–61. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2009.70. Legenbauer, T., Vocks, S., & Schütt-Strömel, S. (2007). Validierung einer deutschsprachigen version des body image avoidance questionnaire BIAQ. Diagnostica, 53(4), 218–225. https://doi.org/10.1026/0012-1924.53.4.218. Levenstein, S., Prantera, C., Varvo, V., Scribano, M. L., Berto, E., Luzi, C., et al. (1993). Development of the perceived stress questionnaire: A new tool for psychosomatic research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 37(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(93)90120-5. Lindquist, K. A., Siegel, E. H., Quigley, K. S., & Barrett, L. F. (2013). The hundred-year emotion war: Are emotions natural kinds or psychological constructions? Comment on Lench, Flores, and Bench (2011). Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 255–263. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029038. Macpherson, C., & Macpherson, L. (1987). Towards an explanation of recent trends in suicide in Western Samoa. Man, 22(2), 305–330. https://doi.org/10.2307/2802867. Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224. Masten, C. L., Telzer, E. H., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2011). An fMRI investigation of attributing negative social treatment to racial discrimination. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(5), 1042–1051. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2010.21520. Mavoa, H. M., & McCabe, M. (2008). Sociocultural factors relating to Tongans’ and Indigenous Fijians’ patterns of eating, physical activity and body size. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 17(3), 375–383. https://doi.org/10.6133/apjcn.2008.17.3.03. McCullough, M. B. (2013). Fat and knocked up: An embodied analysis of stigma, visibility and invisibility in the biomedical management of an obese pregnancy. In M. B. McCullough & J. A. Hardin (Eds.), Reconstructing obesity: The meaning of measures and the measure of meanings (pp. 215–234). New York: Berghahn Books. McDade, T. W. (2002). Status incongruity in Samoan youth: A biocultural analysis of culture change, stress, and immune function. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, New Series, 16(2), 123–150. https://doi.org/10.1525/maq.2002.16.2.123. McGarvey, S. T. (2009). Interdisciplinary translational research in anthropology, nutrition, and public health. Annual Review of Anthropology, 38, 233–249. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-anthro-091908-164327. Mesquita, B., Boiger, M., & De Leersnyder, J. (2016). The cultural construction of emotions. Current Opinion in Psychology, 8, 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.09.015. Mesquita, B., & Frijda, N. H. (1992). Cultural variations in emotions: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 112(2), 179–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.179. Metcalf, P. A., Scragg, R. K., Willoughby, P., Finau, S., & Tipene-Leach, D. (2000). Ethnic differences in perceptions of body size in middle-aged European, Maori and Pacific people living in New Zealand. International Journal of Obesity, 24(5), 593–599. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801202. Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x. Murray-Close, D. (2011). Autonomic reactivity and romantic relational aggression among female emerging adults: Moderating roles of social and cognitive risk. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 80(1), 28–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.01.007. Musser, E. D., Backs, R. W., Schmitt, C. F., Ablow, J. C., Measelle, J. R., & Nigg, J. T. (2011). Emotion regulation via the autonomic nervous system in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(6), 841–852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9499-1. Oppenheimer, J. E., Measelle, J. R., Laurent, H. K., & Ablow, J. C. (2013). Mothers’ vagal regulation during the still-face paradigm: Normative reactivity and impact of depression symptoms. Infant Behavior and Development, 36(2), 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2013.01.003. Over, H., & Uskul, A. K. (2016). Culture moderates children’s responses to ostracism situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110(5), 710. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000050. Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.3. Papousek, I., Aydin, N., Lackner, H. K., Weiss, E. M., Bühner, M., Schulter, G., et al. (2014). Laughter as a social rejection cue: Gelotophobia and transient cardiac responses to other persons’ laughter and insult. Psychophysiology, 51(11), 1112–1121. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12259. Penttilä, J., Helminen, A., Jartti, T., Kuusela, T., Huikuri, H. V., Tulppo, M. P., et al. (2001). Time domain, geometrical and frequency domain analysis of cardiac vagal outflow: Effects of various respiratory patterns. Clinical Physiology, 21(3), 365–376. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2281.2001.00337.x. Pepper, A. C., & Ruiz, S. Y. (2007). Acculturation’s influence on antifat attitudes, body image and eating behaviors. Eating Disorders, 15(5), 427–447. https://doi.org/10.1080/10640260701667912. Pfundmair, M., Aydin, N., Du, H., Yeung, S., Frey, D., & Graupmann, V. (2015). Exclude me if you can: Cultural effects on the outcomes of social exclusion. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46(4), 579–596. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022115571203. Pickett, C. L., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). The social monitoring system: Enhanced sensitivity to social cues as an adaptive response to social exclusion. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 213–226). New York: Psychology Press. Pollock, N. J. (1995). Cultural elaborations of obesity—Fattening practices in Pacific societies. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 4(4), 357–360. Pollock, N. J. (2001). Obesity or large body size? A study in Wallis and Futuna. Pacific Health Dialog, 8(1), 119–123. Pook, M., Tuschen-Caffier, B., & Stich, N. (2002). Evaluation des Fragebogens zum Figurbewusstsein (FFB, deutsche version des body shape questionnaire). Verhaltenstherapie, 12(2), 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1159/000064375. Porges, S. W. (2003). The polyvagal theory: Phylogenetic contributions to social behavior. Physiology & Behavior, 79(3), 503–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9384(03)00156-2. Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 116–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009. Porges, S. W., Heilman, K. J., Bazhenova, O. V., Bal, E., Doussard-Roosevelt, J. A., & Koledin, M. (2007). Does motor activity during psychophysiological paradigms confound the quantification and interpretation of heart rate and heart rate variability measures in young children? Developmental Psychobiology, 49(5), 485–494. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20228. Puhl, R., & Brownell, K. D. (2001). Bias, discrimination, and obesity. Obesity Research, 9(12), 788–805. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2001.108. Puhl, R. M., Latner, J. D., O’Brien, K., Luedicke, J., Danielsdottir, S., & Forhan, M. (2015). A multinational examination of weight bias: Predictors of anti-fat attitudes across four countries. International Journal of Obesity, 39(7), 1166–1173. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2015.32. Puhl, R. M., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Schwartz, M. B. (2007). Internalization of weight bias: Implications for binge eating and emotional well-being. Obesity, 15(1), 19–23. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2007.521. Puhl, R. M., Moss-Racusin, C. A., Schwartz, M. B., & Brownell, K. D. (2008). Weight stigmatization and bias reduction: Perspectives of overweight and obese adults. Health Education Research, 23(2), 347–358. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cym052. Rosen, J. C., Srebnik, D., Saltzberg, E., & Wendt, S. (1991). Development of a body image avoidance questionnaire. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3(1), 32–37. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.3.1.32. Rottenberg, J., Clift, A., Bolden, S., & Salomon, K. (2007). RSA fluctuation in major depressive disorder. Psychophysiology, 44(3), 450–458. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00509.x. Rottenberg, J., Salomon, K., Gross, J. J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2005). Vagal withdrawal to a sad film predicts subsequent recovery from depression. Psychophysiology, 42(3), 277–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00289.x. Rush, E. C., Freitas, I., & Plank, L. D. (2009). Body size, body composition and fat distribution: Comparative analysis of European, Maori, Pacific Island and Asian Indian adults. British Journal of Nutrition, 102(04), 632–641. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114508207221. Saxbe, D. E., Yang, X. F., Borofsky, L. A., & Immordino-Yang, M. H. (2012). The embodiment of emotion: Language use during the feeling of social emotions predicts cortical somatosensory activity. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(7), 806–812. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss075. Scherer, K. R., & Wallbott, H. G. (1994). Evidence for universality and cultural variation of differential emotion response patterning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(2), 310–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.1.55. Schrimpf, A., Kube, J., Neumann, J., Horstmann, A., Villringer, A., & Gaebler, M. (2017). Parasympathetic cardio-regulation during social interactions in individuals with obesity—The influence of negative body image. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 17, 330–347. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-016-0482-8. Schulz, P., & Schlotz, W. (1999). Trierer Inventar zur Erfassung von chronischem Stress (TICS): Skalenkonstruktion, teststatistische Überprüfung und Validierung der Skala Arbeitsüberlastung. Diagnostica, 45(1), 8–19. https://doi.org/10.1026//0012-1924.45.1.8. Schwerdtfeger, A., & Derakshan, N. (2010). The time line of threat processing and vagal withdrawal in response to a self-threatening stressor in cognitive avoidant copers: Evidence for vigilance-avoidance theory. Psychophysiology, 47(4), 786–795. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.00965.x. Shahrestani, S., Stewart, E. M., Quintana, D. S., Hickie, I. B., & Guastella, A. J. (2015). Heart rate variability during adolescent and adult social interactions: A meta-analysis. Biological Psychology, 105, 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.12.012. Shore, B. (1982). Sala’ilua: A Samoan mystery. New York: Columbia University Press. Staebler, K., Helbing, E., Rosenbach, C., & Renneberg, B. (2011). Rejection sensitivity and borderline personality disorder. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 18(4), 275–283. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.705. Steele, M. S., & McGarvey, S. T. (1996). Expression of anger by Samoan adults. Psychological Reports, 79(3 Pt 2), 1339–1348. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1996.79.3f.1339. Stellar, J. E., Cohen, A., Oveis, C., & Keltner, D. (2015). Affective and physiological responses to the suffering of others: Compassion and vagal activity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(4), 572–585. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000010. Stunkard, A. J., Sorensen, T., & Schulsinger, F. (1983). Use of the Danish adoption register for the study of obesity and thinness. In S. S. Kety, L. P. Rowland, R. L. Sidman, & S. W. Matthysse (Eds.), The genetics of neurological and psychiatric disorders (pp. 115–120). New York: Raven Press. Swami, V., Frederick, D. A., Aavik, T., Alcalay, L., Allik, J., Anderson, D., et al. (2010). The attractive female body weight and female body dissatisfaction in 26 countries across 10 world regions: Results of the international body project I. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(3), 309–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167209359702. Swami, V., Knight, D., Tovée, M. J., Davies, P., & Furnham, A. (2007). Preferences for female body size in Britain and the South Pacific. Body Image, 4(2), 219–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.01.002. Swami, V., Tovée, M., & Harris, A. S. (2013). An examination of ethnic differences in actual-ideal weight discrepancy and its correlates in a sample of Malaysian women. International Journal of Culture and Mental Health, 6(2), 96–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/17542863.2011.643315. Swim, J. K., Cohen, L. L., & Hyers, L. L. (1998). Experiencing everyday prejudice and discrimination. In J. K. S. C. Stangor (Ed.), Prejudice: The target’s perspective (pp. 37–60). San Diego: Academic Press. Tanaka, H., & Ikegami, T. (2015). Fear of negative evaluation moderates effects of social exclusion on selective attention to social signs. Cognition and Emotion, 29(7), 1306–1313. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2014.977848. Teevale, T. (2011). Body image and its relation to obesity for Pacific minority ethnic groups in New Zealand: a critical analysis. Pacific Health Dialog, 17(1), 33–53. Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 61(3), 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4. Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2009). Claude Bernard and the heart–brain connection: Further elaboration of a model of neurovisceral integration. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33(2), 81–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.08.004. Thiel, A., Jacobi, C., Horstmann, S., Paul, T., Nutzinger, D. O., & Schüssler, G. (1997). A German version of the eating disorder inventory EDI-2. Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik, Medizinische Psychologie, 47(9–10), 365–376. Thompson, J. K., Fabian, L. J., Moulton, D. O., Dunn, M. E., & Altabe, M. N. (1991). Development and validation of the physical appearance related teasing scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 56(3), 513–521. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5603_12. Tousignant, M. (1998). Suicide in small-scale societies. Transcultural Psychiatry, 35(2), 291–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/136346159803500207. Treloar, C., Porteous, J., Hassan, F., Kasniyah, N., Lakshmanudu, M., Sama, M., et al. (1999). The cross cultural context of obesity: An INCLEN multicentre collaborative study. Health & Place, 5(4), 279–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1353-8292(99)00018-0. Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96, 506. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.3.506. Vanderhasselt, M.-A., Remue, J., Ng, K., Mueller, S., & De Raedt, R. (2015). The regulation of positive and negative social feedback: A psychophysiological study. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 15(3), 553–563. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-015-0345-8. Waskul, D. D., & van der Riet, P. (2002). The abject embodiment of cancer patients: Dignity, selfhood, and the grotesque body. Symbolic Interaction, 25(4), 487–513. https://doi.org/10.1525/si.2002.25.4.487. Wilkinson, J. Y., Ben-Tovim, D. I., & Walker, M. K. (1994). An insight into the personal and cultural significance of weight and shape in large Samoan women. International Journal of Obesity, 18, 602–606. Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the Internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 748. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.748. Zadro, L., Williams, K. D., & Richardson, R. (2004). How low can you go? Ostracism by a computer is sufficient to lower self-reported levels of belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(4), 560–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2003.11.006.