Small-vessel vasculitis: Therapeutic management

Fauci A, Haynes B, Katz P, et al.: Wegener’s granulomatosis: Prospective clinical and therapeutic experience with 85 patients for 21 years. Ann Intern Med 1983, 98:76–85.

Hoffman GS, Kerr GS, Leavitt RY, et al.: Wegener granulomatosis: an analysis of 158 patients. Ann Intern Med 1992, 116:488–498.

Hoffman GS, Leavitt RY, Fleisher TA, et al.: Treatment of Wegener’s granulomatosis with intermittent high-dose intravenous cyclophosphamide. Am J Med 1990, 89:403–410.

Guillevin L, Cordier JF, Lhote F, et al.: A prospective, multicenter, randomized trial comparing steroids and pulse cyclophosphamide versus steroids and oral cyclophosphamide in the treatment of generalized Wegener’s granulomatosis. Arthritis Rheum 1997, 40:2187–2198.

de Groot K, Adu D, Savage CO, et al.: The value of pulse cyclophosphamide in ANCA-associated vasculitis: meta-analysis and critical review. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001, 16:2018–2027.

Jayne D, Rasmussen N, Andrassy K, et al.: A randomized trial of maintenance therapy for vasculitis associated with antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies. N Engl J Med 2003, 349:36–44.

Benenson E, Fries JW, Heilig B, et al.: High-dose azathioprine pulse therapy as a new treatment option in patients with active Wegener’s granulomatosis and lupus nephritis refractory or intolerant to cyclophosphamide. Clin Rheumatol 2005, 24:251–257.

Langford CA, Talar-Williams C, Barron KS, et al.: Use of a cyclophosphamide-induction methotrexate-maintenance regimen for the treatment of Wegener’s granulomatosis: extended follow-up and rate of relapse. Am J Med 2003, 114:463–469.

Langford CA, Talar-Williams C, Barron KS, et al.: A staged approach to the treatment of Wegener’s granulomatosis: induction of remission with glucocorticoids and daily cyclophosphamide switching to methotrexate for remission maintenance. Arthritis Rheum 1999, 42:2666–2673.

Reinhold-Keller E, Fink CO, Herlyn K, et al.: High rate of renal relapse in 71 patients with Wegener’s granulomatosis under maintenance of remission with low-dose methotrexate. Arthritis Rheum 2002, 47:326–332.

Sneller M, Hoffman G, Talar-Williams C, et al.: Analysis of 42 Wegener’s granulomatosis patients treated with methotrexate and prednisone. Arthritis Rheum 1995, 38:608–613.

De Groot K, Rasmussen N, Bacon PA, et al.: Randomized trial of cyclophosphamide versus methotrexate for induction of remission in early systemic antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis. Arthritis Rheum 2005, 52:2461–2469.

Hoffman GS, Langford CA: Are there different forms of life in the antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody universe? Ann Intern Med 2005, 143:683–685.

Nowack R, Göbel U, Klooker P, et al.: Mycophenolate mofetil for maintenance therapy of Wegener’s granulomatosis and microscopic polyangiitis: a pilot study in 11 patients with renal involvement. J Am Soc Nephrol 1999, 10:1965–1971.

Langford CA, Talar-Williams C, Sneller MC: Mycophenolate mofetil for remission maintenance in the treatment of Wegener’s granulomatosis. Arthritis Rheum 2004, 51:278–283.

Koukoulaki M, Jayne DR: Mycophenolate mofetil in anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibodies-associated systemic vasculitis. Nephron Clin Pract 2006, 102:c100–107.

Joy MS, Hogan SL, Jennette JC, et al.: A pilot study using mycophenolate mofetil in relapsing or resistant ANCA small vessel vasculitis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2005, 20:2725–2732.

Stassen PM, Cohen Tervaert JW, Stegeman CA: Induction of remission in active anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis with mycophenolate mofetil in patients who cannot be treated with cyclophosphamide. Ann Rheum Dis 2007, 66:798–802.

Metzler C, Fink C, Lamprecht P, et al.: Maintenance of remission with leflunomide in Wegener’s granulomatosis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2004, 43:315–320.

Metzler C, Wagner-Bastmeyer R, Gross W, et al.: Leflunomide versus methotrexate for maintenance of remission in Wegener’s granulomatosis-unexpected high relapse rate under oral methotrexate. Ann Rheum Dis 2005, 64(Suppl 3):262.

Jayne DR, Chapel H, Adu D, et al.: Intravenous immunoglobulin for ANCA-associated systemic vasculitis with persistent disease activity. QJM 2000, 93:433–439.

Clements PJ, Davis J: Cytotoxic drugs: their clinical application to the rheumatic diseases. Sem Arth Rheum 1986, 15:231–254.

Allen NB, Caldwell DS, Rice JR, et al.: Cyclosporin A therapy for Wegener’s granulomatosis. Adv Exp Med Biol 1993, 336:473–476.

Schmitt WH, Hagen EC, Neumann I, et al.: Treatment of refractory Wegener’s granulomatosis with antithymocyte globulin (ATG): an open study in 15 patients. Kidney Int 2004, 65:1440–1448.

Birck R, Newman M, Braun C, et al.: 15-Deoxyspergualin and cyclophosphamide, but not mycophenolatemofetil, prolong survival and attenuate renal disease in a murine model of ANCA-associated crescentic nephritis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006, 21:58–63.

DeRemee RA, McDonald TJ, Weiland LH: Wegener’s granulomatosis: observations on treatment with antimicrobial agents. Mayo Clin Proc 1985, 60:27–32.

Stegeman CA, Cohen Tervaert JW, de Jong PE, et al.: Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole) for the prevention of relapses of Wegener’s granulomatosis. N Engl J Med 1996, 335:16–20.

Klemmer PJ, Chalermskulrat W, Reif MS, et al.: Plasmapheresis therapy for diffuse alveolar hemorrhage in patients with small-vessel vasculitis. Am J Kidney Dis 2003, 42:1149–1153.

Langford CA, Sneller MC, Hallahan CW, et al.: Clinical features and therapeutic management of subglottic stenosis in patients with Wegener’s granulomatosis. Arthritis Rheum 1996, 39:1754–1760.

Hoffman GS, Thomas-Golbanov CK, Chan J, et al.: Treatment of subglottic stenosis, due to Wegener’s granulomatosis, with intralesional corticosteroids and dilation. J Rheumatol 2003, 30:1017–1021.

Wegener’s Granulomatosis Etanercept Trial Research Group: Etanercept plus standard therapy for Wegener’s granulomatosis. N Engl J Med 2005, 352:351–361.

Stone JH, Holbrook JT, Marriott MA, et al.: Solid malignancies among patients in the Wegener’s Granulomatosis Etanercept Trial. Arthritis Rheum 2006, 54:1608–1618.

Mukhtyar C, Luqmani R: Current state of tumour necrosis factor alpha blockade in Wegener’s granulomatosis. Ann Rheum Dis 2005, 64(Suppl 4):iv31–36.

Aries PM, Lamprecht P, Gross WL: Biological therapies: new treatment options for ANCA-associated vasculitis? Expert Opin Biol Ther 2007, 7:521–533.

Booth A, Harper L, Hammad T, et al.: Prospective study of TNFalpha blockade with infliximab in anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated systemic vasculitis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004, 15:717–721.

Specks U, Fervenza FC, McDonald TJ, et al.: Response of Wegener’s granulomatosis to anti-CD20 chimeric monoclonal antibody therapy. Arthritis Rheum 2001, 44:2836–2840.

Keogh KA, Wylam ME, Stone JH, et al.: Induction of remission by B lymphocyte depletion in eleven patients with refractory antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis. Arthritis Rheum 2005, 52:262–268.

Keogh KA, Ytterberg SR, Fervenza FC, et al.: Rituximab for refractory Wegener’s granulomatosis: report of a prospective, open-label pilot trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006, 173:180–187.

Eriksson P: Nine patients with anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-positive vasculitis successfully treated with rituximab. J Intern Med 2005, 257:540–548.

Stasi R, Stipa E, Del Poeta G, et al.: Long-term observation of patients with anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis treated with rituximab. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2006, 45:1432–1436.

Omdal R, Wildhagen K, Hansen T, et al.: Anti-CD20 therapy of treatment-resistant Wegener’s granulomatosis: favourable but temporary response. Scand J Rheumatol 2005, 34:229–232.

Aries PM, Hellmich B, Voswinkel J, et al.: Lack of efficacy of rituximab in Wegener’s granulomatosis with refractory granulomatous manifestations. Ann Rheum Dis 2006, 65:853–858.

Sneller MC: Rituximab and Wegener’s granulomatosis: are B cells a target in vasculitis treatment? Arthritis Rheum 2005, 52:1–5.

Guillevin L, Cohen P, Gayraud M, et al.: Churg-Strauss syndrome. Clinical study and long-term follow-up of 96 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 1999, 78:26–37.

Gayraud M, Guillevin L, le Toumelin P, et al.: Long-term followup of polyarteritis nodosa, microscopic polyangiitis, and Churg-Strauss syndrome: analysis of four prospective trials including 278 patients. Arthritis Rheum 2001, 44:666–675.

Pagnoux C, Guilpain P, Guillevin L: Churg-Strauss syndrome. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2007, 19:25–32.

Metzler C, Hellmich B, Gause A, et al.: Churg Strauss syndrome—successful induction of remission with methotrexate and unexpected high cardiac and pulmonary relapse ratio during maintenance treatment. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2004, 22(6 Suppl 36):S52–S61.

Tatsis E, Schnabel A, Gross WL: Interferon-alpha treatment of four patients with the Churg-Strauss syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1998, 129:370–374.

Metzler C, Lamprecht P, Hellmich B, et al.: Leucoencephalopathy after treatment of Churg-Strauss syndrome with interferon alpha. Ann Rheum Dis 2005, 64:1242–1243.

Kaushik VV, Reddy HV, Bucknall RC: Successful use of rituximab in a patient with recalcitrant Churg-Strauss syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis 2006, 65:1116–1117.

Koukoulaki M, Smith KG, Jayne DR: Rituximab in Churg-Strauss syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis 2006, 65:557–559.