Simulating Code-switching Using a Neural Network Model of Bilingual Sentence Production

Computational Brain & Behavior - 2021
Chara Tsoukala1, Mirjam Broersma1, Antal van den Bosch2, Stefan L. Frank1
1Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
2KNAW Meertens Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Tóm tắt

AbstractCode-switching is the alternation from one language to the other during bilingual speech. We present a novel method of researching this phenomenon using computational cognitive modeling. We trained a neural network of bilingual sentence production to simulate early balanced Spanish–English bilinguals, late speakers of English who have Spanish as a dominant native language, and late speakers of Spanish who have English as a dominant native language. The model produced code-switches even though it was not exposed to code-switched input. The simulations predicted how code-switching patterns differ between early balanced and late non-balanced bilinguals; the balanced bilingual simulation code-switches considerably more frequently, which is in line with what has been observed in human speech production. Additionally, we compared the patterns produced by the simulations with two corpora of spontaneous bilingual speech and identified noticeable commonalities and differences. To our knowledge, this is the first computational cognitive model simulating the code-switched production of non-balanced bilinguals and comparing the simulated production of balanced and non-balanced bilinguals with that of human bilinguals.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Balam, O., Parafita Couto, M.D.C, & Stadthagen-González, H. (2020). Bilingual verbs in three Spanish/English code-switching communities.https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006920911449.

Bentahila, A. (1983). Motivations for code-switching among Arabic-French bilinguals in Morocco. Language & Communication, 3(3), 233–243.

Blokzijl, J., Deuchar, M., & Parafita Couto, M.C. (2017). Determiner asymmetry in mixed nominal constructions: the role of grammatical factors in data from Miami and Nicaragua. Languages, 2(4), 20.

Broersma, M., & De Bot, K. (2006). Triggered codeswitching: a corpus-based evaluation of the original triggering hypothesis and a new alternative. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 9(1), 1–13.

Bullock, B.E., & Toribio, A.J. (2009). Themes in the study of code-switching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chang, F. (2002). Symbolically speaking: a connectionist model of sentence production. Cognitive Science, 26, 609–651.

Chang, F. (2009). Learning to order words: a connectionist model of heavy NP shift and accessibility effects in Japanese and English. Journal of Memory and Language, 61(3), 374–397.

Chang, F., Dell, G.S., & Bock, K. (2006). Becoming syntactic. Psychological Review, 113(2), 234.

Chang, F., Baumann, M., Pappert, S., & Fitz, H. (2015). Do lemmas speak German? A verb position effect in German structural priming. Cognitive Science, 39(5), 1113–1130.

Deuchar, M., Davies, P., Herring, J., Couto, M.C.P., & Carter, D. (2014). Building bilingual corpora. In E. Thomas, & I. Mennen (Eds.) Advances in the study of bilingualism (pp. 93–111). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

Dewaele, J.-M., & Li, W. (2014). Intra-and inter-individual variation in self-reported code-switching patterns of adult multilinguals. International Journal of Multilingualism, 11(2), 225–246.

Elman, J.L. (1990). Finding structure in time. Cognitive Science, 14(2), 179–211.

Fishman, J.A., Cooper, R.L., & Newman, R.M. (1971). Bilingualism in the barrio (Vol. 1). Bloomington: Indiana University.

Fitz, H., & Chang, F. (2017). Meaningful questions: the acquisition of auxiliary inversion in a connectionist model of sentence production. Cognition, 166, 225–250.

Fricke, M., & Kootstra, G.J. (2016). Primed codeswitching in spontaneous bilingual dialogue. Journal of Memory and Language, 91, 181–201.

Genesee, F., Nicoladis, E., & Paradis, J. (1995). Language differentiation in early bilingual development. Journal of Child Language, 22(3), 611–631.

Glorot, X., & Bengio, Y. (2010). Understanding the difficulty of training deep feedforward neural networks. In Proceedings of the thirteenth international conference on artificial intelligence and statistics (pp. 249–256).

Gollan, T.H., & Ferreira, V.S. (2009). Should I stay or should I switch? A cost–benefit analysis of voluntary language switching in young and aging bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35(3), 640.

Grosjean, F. (1997). Processing mixed language: issues, findings, and models. In Tutorials in bilingualism: psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 225–254).

Guzzardo Tamargo, R.E., & Dussias, P.E. (2013). Processing of Spanish-English code-switches by late bilinguals. In Proceedings of the annual Boston University conference on language development. NIH Public Access, (Vol. 37 pp. 134–146).

Heath, J.G. (1984). Language contact and language change. Annual Review of Anthropology, 13 (1), 367–384.

Janciauskas, M., & Chang, F. (2018). Input and age-dependent variation in second language learning: a connectionist account. Cognitive Science, 42, 519–554.

Lantto, H. (2012). Grammatical code-switching patterns of early and late Basque-Spanish bilinguals. Sociolinguistic Studies, 6(1), 21.

Lederberg, A.R., & Morales, C. (1985). Code switching by bilinguals: evidence against a third grammar. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 14(2), 113–136.

Malhotra, S. (1980). Hindi-English, code switching and language choice in urban, uppermiddle-class Indian families. Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics, 5, 39–46.

Matras, Y. (2013). Languages in contact in a world marked by change and mobility. Revue Française de Linguistique Appliquée, 18(2), 7–13.

Muysken, P. (2000). Bilingual speech: a typology of code-mixing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Common and uncommon ground: social and structural factors in codeswitching. Language in Society, 22, 475–503.

Petersen, J. (1988). Word-internal code-switching constraints in a bilingual child’s grammar. Linguistics, 26, 479–493.

Pfaff, C.W. (1979). Constraints on language mixing: intrasentential code-switching and borrowing in Spanish/English. Language, 55(2), 291–318.

Poplack, S. (1978). Syntactic structure and social function of code-switching, Vol. 2. Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños, City University of New York.

Poplack, S. (1980). Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en Español: toward a typology of code-switching. Linguistics, 18(7–8), 581–618.

Romaine, S. (1986). The syntax and semantics of the code-mixed compound verb in Panjabi/English bilingual discourse. In Language and linguistics: the interdependence of theory, data and application (pp. 35–49).

Sert, O. (2005). The functions of code-switching in ELT classrooms. The Internet TESL Journal, 11(8) http://iteslj.org/Articles/Sert-CodeSwitching.html.

Tsoukala, C., Frank, S.L., & Broersma, M. (2017). “He’s pregnant”: simulating the confusing case of gender pronoun errors in L2. In Proceedings of the 39th annual conference of the cognitive science society (pp. 3392–3397).

Tsoukala, C., Frank, S.L., van den Bosch, A., Valdés Kroff, J., & Broersma, M. (2019). Simulating Spanish-English code-switching: El modelo está generating code-switches. In Proceedings of the workshop on cognitive modeling and computational linguistics (pp. 20–29). Minneapolis: Association for Computational Linguistics.

Tsoukala, C., Frank, S.L., van den Bosch, A., Valdés Kroff, J., & Broersma, M. (in press). Modeling the auxiliary phrase asymmetry in code-switched Spanish–English. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.

Thông tin
Thông tin xuất bản

Computational Brain & Behavior

Thông tin tác giả