Short-Term Efficacy of Click City®: Tobacco: Changing Etiological Mechanisms Related to the Onset of Tobacco Use
Tóm tắt
This paper described the short-term results from an ongoing randomized controlled efficacy study of Click City®: Tobacco, a tobacco prevention program designed for 5th graders, with a booster in sixth grade. Click City®: Tobacco is an innovative school-based prevention program delivered via an intranet, a series of linked computers with a single server. The components of the program target theoretically based and empirically supported etiological mechanisms predictive of future willingness and intentions to use tobacco and initiation of tobacco use. Each component was designed to change one or more etiological mechanisms and was empirically evaluated in the laboratory prior to inclusion in the program. Short-term results from 47 elementary schools (24 schools who used Click City®: Tobacco, and 23 who continued with their usual curriculum) showed change in intentions and willingness to use tobacco from baseline to 1-week following the completion of the 5th grade sessions. The results demonstrate the short-term efficacy of this program and suggest that experimentally evaluating components prior to including them in the program contributed to the efficacy of the program. The program was most efficacious for students who were most at risk.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, personality and behavior. New York: Open University Press.
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Alexander, C., Piazza, M., Mekos, D., & Valente, T. (2001). Peers, schools, and adolescent cigarette smoking. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 29, 22–30.
Andrews (2010). [Extent of tobacco use among 5th graders in the Oregon Youth Substance Use Project]. Unpublished raw data.
Andrews, J. A., & Peterson, M. (2006). The development of social images of substance users in children: A Guttman unidimensional scaling approach. Journal of Substance Use, 11, 305–321. PMCID: PMC2443056.
Andrews, J. A., Hampson, S. E., & Barckley, M. (2008a). The effect of subjective normative social images of smokers on children’s intentions to smoke. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 10, 589–597.
Andrews, J. A., Hampson, S. E., Barckley, M., Gerrard, M., & Gibbons, F. X. (2008b). The effect of early cognitions on cigarette and alcohol use in adolescence. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22, 96–106.
Andrews, J. A., Hampson, S. E., Greenwald, A. G., Gordon, J., & Widdop, C. (2010). Using the implicit association test to assess children’s implicit attitudes toward smoking. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40, 2387–2406.
Andrews, J. A., Hops, H., & Duncan, S. C. (1997). Adolescent modeling of parent substance use: The moderating effect of the relationship with the parent. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 259–270.
Andrews, J. A., Tildesley, H. H., Hops, H., Duncan, S. C., & Severson, H. H. (2003). Elementary school age children’s future intentions and use of substance. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 556–567.
Ausubel, D. P. (1977). The facilitation of meaningful verbal learning in the classroom. Educational Psychologist, 12, 162–178.
Benthin, A., Slovic, P., & Severson, H. (1993). A psychometric study of adolescent risk perception. Journal of Adolescence, 16, 153–168.
Botvin, G., & Griffin, K. (2007). School-based programmes to prevent alcohol, tobacco and other drug use. International Review of Psychiatry, 19, 607–615.
Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Botvin, E. M., & Diaz, T. (1995). Long-term follow-up results of a randomized drug abuse prevention trial in a white middle-class population. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1106–12.
Bricker, J. B., Peterson, A. V., Jr., Andersen, M. R., Sarason, I. G., Rajan, B. K., & Leroux, B. G. (2007). Parents' and older siblings' smoking during childhood: Changing influences on smoking acquisition and escalation over the course of adolescence. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 9, 915–926.
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1966). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Dent, C., Sussman, S., Stacy, A., Craig, S., Burton, D., & Flay, B. (1995). Two-year behavior outcomes of Project towards No Tobacco Use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 676–677.
Diamond, W. D. (1990). Effects of describing long-term risks as cumulative or noncumulative. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 11, 405–419.
Flay, B. R. (2000). Approaches to substance use prevention utilizing school curriculum plus social environmental change. Addictive Behaviors, 25, 861–885.
Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Cleveland, M. J., & Wills, T. A. (2006). A theory-based dual focus alcohol intervention for pre-adolescents: Social cognitions in the Strong African American Families Program. Psychology of Addictive Behavior, 20, 185–195.
Gibbons, F. X., & Gerrard, M. (1997). Health images and their effects on health behavior. In B. P. Buunk & F. X. Gibbons (Eds.), Health, coping, and well-being: Perspectives from social comparison theory (pp. 63–94). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Gibbons, F. X., Houlihan, A. E., & Gerrard, M. (2009). Reason and reaction: The utility of a dual-focus, dual-processing perspective on promotion and prevention of adolescent health risk behavior. British Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 231–248.
Gilman, S. E., Abrams, D. B., & Buka, S. L. (2003). Socioeconomic status over the life course and stages of cigarette use: Initiation, regular use, and cessation. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57, 802–808.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.
Griffin, K. W., Botvin, G. J., Nichols, T. R., & Doyle, M. M. (2003). Effectiveness of a universal drug abuse prevention approach for youth at high risk for substance use initiation. Preventive Medicine, 36, 1–7.
Hampson, S. E., Andrews, J. A., & Barckley, M. (2007). Predictors of the development of elementary-school children’s intentions to smoke cigarettes: Hostility, prototypes, and subjective norms. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 7, 751–760.
Harrell, J., Bangdiwala, S., Deng, S., Webb, J., & Bradley, C. (1998). Smoking initiation in youth: The roles of gender, race, socioeconomics, and developmental status. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 23, 271–279.
Hoyle, R. H., Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Lorch, E. P., & Donohew, R. L. (2002). Reliability and validity of a brief measure of sensation seeking. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 401–414.
Institute of Medicine. (1996). Prevention. In: Pathways of addiction: Opportunities in drug abuse research (pp. 139–158). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2009). Monitoring the Future national results on adolescent drug use: Overview of key findings, 2008 (NIH Publication No. 09-7401). Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
MacKinnon, D. P., Taborga, M. P., & Morgan-Lopez, A. A. (2002). Mediation designs for tobacco prevention research. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 68, S69–S83.
Maggi, S., Hertzman, C., & Vaillancourt, T. (2007). Changes in smoking behaviours from late childhood to adolescence: Insights from the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. Health Psychology, 26, 232–240.
Marcoux, B. C., & Shope, J. T. (1997). Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior to adolescent use and misuse of alcohol. Health Education Research, 12, 323–331.
Pierce, J. P., Choi, W. S., Gilpin, E. A., Farkas, A. J., & Merritt, R. K. (1996). Validation of susceptibility as a predictor of which adolescents take up smoking in the United States. Health Psychology, 15, 355–361.
Plumridge, E. W., Fitzgerald, L. J., & Abel, G. M. (2002). Performing coolness: Smoking refusal and adolescent identities. Health Education Research:Theory and Practice, 17, 167–179.
Quadrel, M. J., Fischoff, B., & Davis, W. (1993). Adolescent (in) vulnerability. American Psychology, 48, 102–116.
Rivis, A., & Sheeran, P. (2003). Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the Theory of Planned Behavior: A meta-analysis. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social, 22, 218–233.
Rohrbach, L. A., Graham, J. W., & Hansen, W. B. (1993). Diffusion of a school-based substance abuse prevention program: Predictors of program implementation. Preventive Medicine, 22, 237–260.
Skara, S. N., & Sussman, S. (2003). A review of 25 long-term adolescent tobacco and other drug use prevention program evaluations. Preventive Medicine, 37, 541–474.
Slovic, P. (2000). What does it mean to know a cumulative risk? Adolescents' perceptions of short-term and long-term consequences of smoking. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 13, 259–266.
Slovic, P. (2001). Cigarette smoking: Rational actors or rational fools? In P. Slovic (Ed.), Smoking: Risk, perception, and policy (pp. 97–124). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Slovic, P., Peters, E., Finucane, M. L., & MacGregor, D. G. (2005). Affect, risk, and decision-making. Health Psychology, 24, S35–40.
Sussman, S. (1989). Two social influence perspectives of tobacco use development and prevention. Health Education Research: Theory and Practice, 4, 213–223.
Sussman, S. (2001). School-based tobacco use prevention and cessation: Where are we going? American Journal of Health Behaviors, 25, 191–199.
Sussman, S., Dent, C. W., Burton, D., Stacy, A. W., Sun, P., Craig, S., et al. (1993). Project towards No Tobacco Use: 1—year behavior outcomes. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 1245–1250.
Tobler, N., & Stratton, H. H. (1997). Effectiveness of school-based drug prevention programs: A meta-analysis of the research. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 18, 71–128.
Urbán, R. (2010). Early smoking experience in adolescents. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 612–615.
Weinstein, N. D. (1998). Accuracy of smokers' risk perceptions. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 20, 135–140.
Wells, J., & Lewis, L. (2006). Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools and Classrooms: 1994–2005 (NCES 2007-020). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Wiehe, S. E., Garrison, M. M., Christakis, D. A., Ebel, B. E., & Rivara, F. P. (2005). A systematic review of school-based smoking prevention trials with long-term follow-ups. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 162–169.