Serum Chloride and Heart Failure

Rose, 2001 Amlal, 2011, Pendrin as a novel target for diuretic therapy, Cell Physiol Biochem, 28, 521, 10.1159/000335117 Chambrey, 2015, Relative roles of principal and intercalated cells in the regulation of sodium balance and blood pressure, Curr Hypertens Rep, 17, 538, 10.1007/s11906-015-0538-0 Edwards, 2012, Chloride transport, Compr Physiol, 2, 1061, 10.1002/cphy.c110027 Damman, 2007, Worsening renal function and prognosis in heart failure: systematic review and meta-analysis, J Card Fail, 13, 599, 10.1016/j.cardfail.2007.04.008 Lobo, 2014, Should chloride-rich crystalloids remain the mainstay of fluid resuscitation to prevent “pre-renal” acute kidney injury?:con, Kidney Int, 86, 1096, 10.1038/ki.2014.105 Veech, 1986, The toxic impact of parenteral solutions on the metabolism of cells: a hypothesis for physiological parenteral therapy, Am J Clin Nutr, 44, 519, 10.1093/ajcn/44.4.519 Galla, 1984, Volume-independent reductions in glomerular filtration rate in acute chloride-depletion alkalosis in the rat. Evidence for mediation by tubuloglomerular feedback, J Clin Invest, 74, 2002, 10.1172/JCI111622 Grodin, 2017, Implications of serum chloride homeostasis in acute heart failure (from ROSE-AHF), Am J Cardiol, 119, 78, 10.1016/j.amjcard.2016.09.014 Xu, 1997, Upregulation of aquaporin-2 water channel expression in chronic heart failure rat, J Clin Invest, 99, 1500, 10.1172/JCI119312 Szatalowicz, 1981, Radioimmunoassay of plasma arginine vasopressin in hyponatremic patients with congestive heart failure, N Engl J Med, 305, 263, 10.1056/NEJM198107303050506 Goldsmith, 1983, Increased plasma arginine vasopressin levels in patients with congestive heart failure, J Am Coll Cardiol, 1, 1385, 10.1016/S0735-1097(83)80040-0 Francis, 1990, Comparison of neuroendocrine activation in patients with left ventricular dysfunction with and without congestive heart failure. A substudy of the Studies of Left Ventricular Dysfunction (SOLVD), Circulation, 82, 1724, 10.1161/01.CIR.82.5.1724 Ward, 1984, Bumetanide. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use, Drugs, 28, 426, 10.2165/00003495-198428050-00003 De Bacquer, 1998, Is low serum chloride level a risk factor for cardiovascular mortality?, J Cardiovasc Risk, 5, 177, 10.1097/00043798-199806000-00007 Testani, 2016, Hypochloraemia is strongly and independently associated with mortality in patients with chronic heart failure, Eur J Heart Fail, 18, 660, 10.1002/ejhf.477 Grodin, 2016, Importance of abnormal chloride homeostasis in stable chronic heart failure, Circ Heart Fail, 9, 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.115.002453 Grodin, 2018, Perturbations in serum chloride homeostasis in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: insights from TOPCAT, Eur J Heart Fail, 20, 1436, 10.1002/ejhf.1229 Trovato, 2020, Hypochloremia at left ventricular assist device implantation is associated with decreased one year survival, J Heart Lung Transplant, 39, 874, 10.1016/j.healun.2020.01.405 Mentz, 2021, Clinical outcome predictions for the VerICiguaT global study in subjects with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (VICTORIA) trial: VICTORIA outcomes model, J Card Fail, 27, P949, 10.1016/j.cardfail.2021.05.016 Grodin, 2015, Prognostic role of serum chloride levels in acute decompensated heart failure, J Am Coll Cardiol, 66, 659, 10.1016/j.jacc.2015.06.007 Ter Maaten, 2016, Hypochloremia, diuretic resistance, and outcome in patients with acute heart failure, Circ Heart Fail, 9, 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.116.003109 Cuthbert, 2020, Hypochloraemia in patients with heart failure: causes and consequences, Cardiol Ther, 9, 333, 10.1007/s40119-020-00194-3 Cappola, 2011, Loss-of-function DNA sequence variant in the CLCNKA chloride channel implicates the cardio-renal axis in interindividual heart failure risk variation, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 108, 2456, 10.1073/pnas.1017494108 Rubio-Gracia, 2018, Prevalence, predictors and clinical outcome of residual congestion in acute decompensated heart failure, Int J Cardiol, 258, 185, 10.1016/j.ijcard.2018.01.067 Ambrosy, 2013, Clinical course and predictive value of congestion during hospitalization in patients admitted for worsening signs and symptoms of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: findings from the EVEREST trial, Eur Heart J, 34, 835, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehs444 Metra, 2012, Is worsening renal function an ominous prognostic sign in patients with acute heart failure? The role of congestion and its interaction with renal function, Circ Heart Fail, 5, 54, 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.111.963413 Testani, 2010, Potential effects of aggressive decongestion during the treatment of decompensated heart failure on renal function and survival, Circulation, 122, 265, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.933275 Ellison, 2001, Diuretic therapy and resistance in congestive heart failure, Cardiology, 96, 132, 10.1159/000047397 Rao, 2017, Compensatory distal reabsorption drives diuretic resistance in human heart failure, J Am Soc Nephrol, 28, 3414, 10.1681/ASN.2016111178 Ellison, 1989, Adaptation of the distal convoluted tubule of the rat. Structural and functional effects of dietary salt intake and chronic diuretic infusion, J Clin Invest, 83, 113, 10.1172/JCI113847 Hanberg, 2016, Hypochloremia and diuretic resistance in heart failure: mechanistic insights, Circ Heart Fail, 9, 10, 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.116.003180 Testani, 2014, Loop diuretic efficiency: a metric of diuretic responsiveness with prognostic importance in acute decompensated heart failure, Circ Heart Fail, 7, 261, 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.113.000895 Yang, 2003, WNK kinases regulate thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransport, J Clin Invest, 111, 1039, 10.1172/JCI17443 Lalioti, 2006, Wnk4 controls blood pressure and potassium homeostasis via regulation of mass and activity of the distal convoluted tubule, Nat Genet, 38, 1124, 10.1038/ng1877 Chen, 2019, WNK4 kinase is a physiological intracellular chloride sensor, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 116, 4502, 10.1073/pnas.1817220116 Piala, 2014, Chloride sensing by WNK1 involves inhibition of autophosphorylation, Sci Signal, 7, ra41, 10.1126/scisignal.2005050 Ponce-Coria, 2008, Regulation of NKCC2 by a chloride-sensing mechanism involving the WNK3 and SPAK kinases, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 105, 8458, 10.1073/pnas.0802966105 Koomans, 1989, Evaluation of lithium clearance as a marker of proximal tubule sodium handling, Kidney Int, 36, 2, 10.1038/ki.1989.153 Cooper, 2016, Serum bicarbonate in acute heart failure: relationship to treatment strategies and clinical outcomes, J Card Fail, 22, 738, 10.1016/j.cardfail.2016.01.007 Loon, 1998, Mild metabolic alkalosis impairs the natriuretic response to bumetanide in normal human subjects, Clin Sci (Lond), 94, 287, 10.1042/cs0940287 Luke, 2012, It is chloride depletion alkalosis, not contraction alkalosis, J Am Soc Nephrol, 23, 204, 10.1681/ASN.2011070720 Hartupee, 2017, Neurohormonal activation in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, Nat Rev Cardiol, 14, 30, 10.1038/nrcardio.2016.163 McCullough, 2021, Mortality and guideline-directed medical therapy in real-world heart failure patients with reduced ejection fraction, Clin Cardiol, 44, 1192, 10.1002/clc.23664 Kirchner, 1978, Importance of chloride for acute inhibition of renin by sodium chloride, Am J Physiol, 235, F444 Kotchen, 1983, Effect of chloride on renin and blood pressure responses to sodium chloride, Ann Intern Med, 98, 817, 10.7326/0003-4819-98-5-817 Kataoka, 2017, Proposal for heart failure progression based on the ‘chloride theory’: worsening heart failure with increased vs. non-increased serum chloride concentration, ESC Heart Fail, 4, 623, 10.1002/ehf2.12191 Konstam, 2007, Effects of oral tolvaptan in patients hospitalized for worsening heart failure: the EVEREST outcome trial, JAMA, 297, 1319, 10.1001/jama.297.12.1319 Schrier, 2006, Tolvaptan, a selective oral vasopressin V2-receptor antagonist, for hyponatremia, N Engl J Med, 355, 2099, 10.1056/NEJMoa065181 Paterna, 2000, Effects of high-dose furosemide and small-volume hypertonic saline solution infusion in comparison with a high dose of furosemide as a bolus, in refractory congestive heart failure, Eur J Heart Fail, 2, 305, 10.1016/S1388-9842(00)00094-5 Paterna, 2011, Short-term effects of hypertonic saline solution in acute heart failure and long-term effects of a moderate sodium restriction in patients with compensated heart failure with New York Heart Association class III (class C) (SMAC-HF Study), Am J Med Sci, 342, 27, 10.1097/MAJ.0b013e31820f10ad Griffin, 2020, Real world use of hypertonic saline in refractory acute decompensated heart failure: a U.S. center’s experience, JACC Heart Fail, 8, 199, 10.1016/j.jchf.2019.10.012 Mahtani, 2018, Reduced salt intake for heart failure: a systematic review, JAMA Intern Med, 178, 1693, 10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.4673 Ezekowitz, 2022, Reduction of dietary sodium to less than 100 mmol in heart failure (SODIUM-HF): an international, open-label, randomised, controlled trial, Lancet, 399, 1391, 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00369-5 Parrinello, 2009, Long-term effects of dietary sodium intake on cytokines and neurohormonal activation in patients with recently compensated congestive heart failure, J Card Fail, 15, 864, 10.1016/j.cardfail.2009.06.002 Paterna, 2009, Medium term effects of different dosage of diuretic, sodium, and fluid administration on neurohormonal and clinical outcome in patients with recently compensated heart failure, Am J Cardiol, 103, 93, 10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.08.043 Doukky, 2016, Impact of dietary sodium restriction on heart failure outcomes, JACC Heart Fail, 4, 24, 10.1016/j.jchf.2015.08.007 Mattes, 1991, Relative contributions of dietary sodium sources, J Am Coll Nutr, 10, 383, 10.1080/07315724.1991.10718167 Rubin, 1960, The use of L-lysine monomydrochloride in combination with mercurial diuretics in the treatment of refractory fluid retention, Circulation, 21, 332, 10.1161/01.CIR.21.3.332 Kataoka, 2019, Acetazolamide as a potent chloride-regaining diuretic: short- and long-term effects, and its pharmacologic role under the ‘chloride theory’ for heart failure pathophysiology, Heart Vessels, 34, 1952, 10.1007/s00380-019-01433-x Zahedi, 2013, Potentiation of the effect of thiazide derivatives by carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: molecular mechanisms and potential clinical implications, PLOS ONE, 8, 10.1371/journal.pone.0079327 Verbrugge, 2019, Acetazolamide to increase natriuresis in congestive heart failure at high risk for diuretic resistance, Eur J Heart Fail, 21, 1415, 10.1002/ejhf.1478 Mullens, 2022, Acetazolamide in acute decompensated heart failure with volume overload, N Engl J Med, 387, 1185, 10.1056/NEJMoa2203094