Sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock: A review of the literature

Levy, 2003, 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS international sepsis definitions conference, Crit Care Med, 31, 1250, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000050454.01978.3B 1992, American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine Consensus Conference: definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis, Crit Care Med, 20, 864, 10.1097/00003246-199206000-00025 Angus, 2001, Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care, Crit Care Med, 29, 1303, 10.1097/00003246-200107000-00002 Nguyen, 2007, Sepsis in the 21st century: recent definitions and therapeutic advances, Am J Emerg Med, 25, 564, 10.1016/j.ajem.2006.08.015 Cheng, 2008, Surviving sepsis in developing countries, Crit Care Med, 36, 2487, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e318177762d Cheng, 2008, Strategies to reduce mortality from bacterial sepsis in adults in developing countries, PLoS Med, 5, e175, 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050175 Baelani, 2011, Availability of critical care resources to treat patients with severe sepsis or septic shock in Africa: a self-reported, continent-wide survey of anaesthesia providers, Crit Care, 15, R10, 10.1186/cc9410 Dellinger, 2013, Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2012, Crit Care Med, 41, 580, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31827e83af Zambon, 2008, Implementation of the surviving sepsis campaign guidelines for severe sepsis and septic shock: we could go faster, J Crit Care, 23, 455, 10.1016/j.jcrc.2007.08.003 Jawad, 2012, Assessing available information on the burden of sepsis: global estimates of incidence, prevalence and mortality, J Global Health, 2, 10404, 10.7189/jogh.01.010404 Dunser, 2012, Recommendations for sepsis management in resource-limited settings, Intensive Care Med, 38, 557, 10.1007/s00134-012-2468-5 Black, 2010, Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality in 2008: a systematic analysis, Lancet, 375, 1969, 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60549-1 Li, 2011, Sepsis: the inflammatory foundation of pathophysiology and therapy., Hosp Pract (1995), 39, 99, 10.3810/hp.2011.08.585 Dombrovskiy, 2005, Facing the challenge: decreasing case fatality rates in severe sepsis despite increasing hospitalizations, Crit Care Med, 33, 2555, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000186748.64438.7B Cohen, 2004, Diagnosis of infection in sepsis: an evidence-based review, Crit Care Med, 32, S466, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000145917.89975.F5 Maki, 2006, The risk of bloodstream infection in adults with different intravascular devices: a systematic review of 200 published prospective studies, Mayo Clin Proc, 81, 1159, 10.4065/81.9.1159 Marshall, 2004, Source control in the management of severe sepsis and septic shock: an evidence-based review, Crit Care Med, 32, S513, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000143119.41916.5D Martin, 2003, The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000, N Engl J Med, 348, 1546, 10.1056/NEJMoa022139 Lamy, 2002, What is the relevance of obtaining multiple blood samples for culture? A comprehensive model to optimize the strategy for diagnosing bacteremia, Clin Infect Dis, 35, 842, 10.1086/342383 Shoemaker, 1988, Prospective trial of supranormal values of survivors as therapeutic goals in high-risk surgical patients, Chest, 94, 1176, 10.1378/chest.94.6.1176 Rivers, 2001, Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock, N Engl J Med, 345, 1368, 10.1056/NEJMoa010307 Jones, 2008, The effect of a quantitative resuscitation strategy on mortality in patients with sepsis: a meta-analysis, Crit Care Med, 36, 2734, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e318186f839 Yealy, 2014, A randomized trial of protocol-based care for early septic shock, N Engl J Med, 370, 1683, 10.1056/NEJMoa1401602 Vincent, 2004, Fluid resuscitation in severe sepsis and septic shock: an evidence-based review, Crit Care Med, 32, S451, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000142984.44321.A4 Marik, 2011, Hemodynamic parameters to guide fluid therapy, Ann Intensive Care, 1, 1, 10.1186/2110-5820-1-1 Marik, 2008, Does central venous pressure predict fluid responsiveness? A systematic review of the literature and the tale of seven mares, Chest, 134, 172, 10.1378/chest.07-2331 Nguyen, 2011, Outcome effectiveness of the severe sepsis resuscitation bundle with addition of lactate clearance as a bundle item: a multi-national evaluation, Crit Care, 15, R229, 10.1186/cc10469 2011 Guidet, 2012, Assessment of hemodynamic efficacy and safety of 6% hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.4 vs. 0.9% NaCl fluid replacement in patients with severe sepsis: the CRYSTMAS study, Crit Care, 16, R94, 10.1186/cc11358 Perner, 2012, Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.42 versus Ringer’s acetate in severe sepsis, N Engl J Med, 367, 124, 10.1056/NEJMoa1204242 Yunos, 2012, Association between a chloride-liberal vs chloride-restrictive intravenous fluid administration strategy and kidney injury in critically ill adults, JAMA, 308, 1566, 10.1001/jama.2012.13356 Shaw, 2012, Major complications, mortality, and resource utilization after open abdominal surgery: 0.9% saline compared to Plasma-Lyte, Ann Surg, 255, 821, 10.1097/SLA.0b013e31825074f5 Maitland, 2011, Mortality after fluid bolus in African children with severe infection, N Engl J Med, 364, 2483, 10.1056/NEJMoa1101549 Hollenberg, 2004, Practice parameters for hemodynamic support of sepsis in adult patients: 2004 update, Crit Care Med, 32, 1928, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000139761.05492.D6 LeDoux, 2000, Effects of perfusion pressure on tissue perfusion in septic shock, Crit Care Med, 28, 2729, 10.1097/00003246-200008000-00007 De Backer, 2010, Comparison of dopamine and norepinephrine in the treatment of shock, N Engl J Med, 362, 779, 10.1056/NEJMoa0907118 Tsuneyoshi, 2001, Hemodynamic and metabolic effects of low-dose vasopressin infusions in vasodilatory septic shock, Crit Care Med, 29, 487, 10.1097/00003246-200103000-00004 Hebert, 1999, A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial of transfusion requirements in critical care. Transfusion Requirements in Critical Care Investigators, Canadian Critical Care Trials Group, N Engl J Med, 340, 409, 10.1056/NEJM199902113400601 Levy, 2010, The surviving sepsis campaign: results of an international guideline-based performance improvement program targeting severe sepsis, Crit Care Med, 38, 367, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181cb0cdc Jones, 2010, Lactate clearance vs central venous oxygen saturation as goals of early sepsis therapy: a randomized clinical trial, JAMA, 303, 739, 10.1001/jama.2010.158 Kumar, 2006, Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock, Crit Care Med, 34, 1589, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000217961.75225.E9 Gaieski, 2010, Impact of time to antibiotics on survival in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock in whom early goal-directed therapy was initiated in the emergency department, Crit Care Med, 38, 1045, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181cc4824 Leibovici, 1997, Monotherapy versus beta-lactam-aminoglycoside combination treatment for gram-negative bacteremia: a prospective, observational study, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 41, 1127, 10.1128/AAC.41.5.1127 Ulldemolins, 2011, Appropriateness is critical, Crit Care Clin, 27, 35, 10.1016/j.ccc.2010.09.007 Bochud, 2004, Antimicrobial therapy for patients with severe sepsis and septic shock: an evidence-based review, Crit Care Med, 32, S495, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000143118.41100.14 Pappas, 2009, Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Clin Infect Dis, 48, 503, 10.1086/596757 Berkley, 2009, HIV infection, malnutrition, and invasive bacterial infection among children with severe malaria, Clin Infect Dis, 49, 336, 10.1086/600299 Auma, 2013, Malaria is an uncommon cause of adult sepsis in south-western Uganda, Malar J, 12, 146, 10.1186/1475-2875-12-146 2012 Hendriksen, 2011, Evaluation of a PfHRP2 and a pLDH-based rapid diagnostic test for the diagnosis of severe malaria in 2 populations of African children, Clin Infect Dis, 52, 1100, 10.1093/cid/cir143 Mtove, 2011, Use of an HRP2-based rapid diagnostic test to guide treatment of children admitted to hospital in a malaria-endemic area of north-east Tanzania, Trop Med Int Health, 16, 545, 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2011.02737.x Ndyomugyenyi, 2007, Diagnosis and treatment of malaria in peripheral health facilities in Uganda: findings from an area of low transmission in south-western Uganda, Malar J, 6, 39, 10.1186/1475-2875-6-39 Ndyomugyenyi, 2007, Malaria treatment-seeking behaviour and drug prescription practices in an area of low transmission in Uganda: implications for prevention and control, Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 101, 209, 10.1016/j.trstmh.2006.06.004 McCombie, 1996, Treatment seeking for malaria: a review of recent research, Soc Sci Med, 43, 933, 10.1016/0277-9536(95)00446-7 Marshall, 2011, Principles of source control in the management of sepsis, Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am, 23, 99, 10.1016/j.ccell.2010.12.006 Rothwell, 1991, Cortisol response to corticotropin and survival in septic shock, Lancet, 337, 582, 10.1016/0140-6736(91)91641-7 Cronin, 1995, Corticosteroid treatment for sepsis: a critical appraisal and meta-analysis of the literature, Crit Care Med, 23, 1430, 10.1097/00003246-199508000-00019 Annane, 2002, Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock, JAMA, 288, 862, 10.1001/jama.288.7.862 Sprung, 2008, Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock, N Engl J Med, 358, 111, 10.1056/NEJMoa071366 Finfer, 2009, Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients, N Engl J Med, 360, 1283, 10.1056/NEJMoa0810625 Sevransky, 2004, Mechanical ventilation in sepsis-induced acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome: an evidence-based review, Crit Care Med, 32, S548, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000145947.19077.25 Dmello, 2010, Outcomes of etomidate in severe sepsis and septic shock, Chest, 138, 1327, 10.1378/chest.10-0790 Tekwani, 2010, A comparison of the effects of etomidate and midazolam on hospital length of stay in patients with suspected sepsis: a prospective, randomized study, Ann Emerg Med, 56, 481, 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2010.05.034 Jabre, 2009, Etomidate versus ketamine for rapid sequence intubation in acutely ill patients: a multicentre randomised controlled trial, Lancet, 374, 293, 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60949-1 Tekwani, 2009, A prospective observational study of the effect of etomidate on septic patient mortality and length of stay, Acad Emerg Med, 16, 11, 10.1111/j.1553-2712.2008.00299.x Barbi, 2010, Use of ketamine continuous infusion for pediatric sedation in septic shock, Pediatr Emerg Care, 26, 689, 10.1097/PEC.0b013e3181f196e6 Morris, 2009, Anaesthesia in haemodynamically compromised emergency patients: does ketamine represent the best choice of induction agent?, Anaesthesia, 64, 532, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.2008.05835.x 2000, Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network, N Engl J Med, 342, 1301, 10.1056/NEJM200005043421801 Drakulovic, 1999, Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial, Lancet, 354, 1851, 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)12251-1 Bataar, 2010, Nationwide survey on resource availability for implementing current sepsis guidelines in Mongolia, Bull World Health Organ, 88, 839, 10.2471/BLT.10.077073 Santhanam, 2009, GAP between knowledge and skills for the implementation of the ACCM/PALS septic shock guidelines in India: is the bridge too far?, Indian J Crit Care Med, 13, 54, 10.4103/0972-5229.56049 Jacob, 2011, Fitting a square peg into a round hole: are the current Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines feasible for Africa?, Crit Care, 15, 117, 10.1186/cc9981 Lee, 2012, Improving sepsis care in resource limited settings, Crit Care Med, 40, 2234, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182515068 Jacob, 2012, The impact of early monitored management on survival in hospitalized adult Ugandan patients with severe sepsis: a prospective intervention study, Crit Care Med, 40, 2050, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31824e65d7 Becker, 2009, Surviving sepsis in low-income and middle-income countries: new directions for care and research, Lancet Infect Dis, 9, 577, 10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70135-5