Role of substitution in mitigating the supply pressure of rare earths in electric road transport applications

International Energy Agency Report, 2015, 10.1787/weo-2015-en United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change European Commission, 2015 International Energy Agency, Global EV Outlook 2016 International Energy Agency, Global EV Outlook Amsterdam Round Tables and McKinsey & Company California Institute of Technology World Wide Fund – WWF UK Energy Research Centre Bustamante, 2016, Life cycle assessment of jointly produced solar energy materials: challenges and best practices, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 156, 11, 10.1016/j.solmat.2016.05.007 Moss Moss, 2013, The potential risks from metals bottlenecks to the deployment of strategic energy technologies, Energ Policy, 55, 556, 10.1016/j.enpol.2012.12.053 Moss Zhang, 2016, Coercivity enhancement of Nd-Fe-B sintered magnets with intragranular adding (Pr, Dy, Cu)-Hx powders, J. Magn. Magn. Mater., 399, 159, 10.1016/j.jmmm.2015.09.071 Riba, 2016, Rare-earth-free propulsion motors for electric vehicles: a technology review, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev., 57, 367, 10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.121 Stegen, 2015, Heavy rare earths, permanent magnets, and renewable energies: an imminent crisis, Energ Policy, 79, 1, 10.1016/j.enpol.2014.12.015 Lucas, 2015, 213 European Rare Earths Competency Network (ERECON) Alonso, 2012, Evaluating rare earth element availability: a case with revolutionary demand from clean technologies, Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 3406, 10.1021/es203518d Nansai, 2014, Global flow of critical metals necessary for low-carbon technologies: the case of neodymium, cobalt, and platinum, Environ. Sci. Technol., 48, 1391, 10.1021/es4033452 De Boer, 2013, Scarcity of rare earths elements, ChemSusChem, 6, 2045, 10.1002/cssc.201200794 Baldi, 2014, Clean energy industries and rare earth materials: economic and financial issues, Energ Policy, 66, 53, 10.1016/j.enpol.2013.10.067 Golev, 2014, Rare earths supply chain: current status, constraints and opportunities, Resour. Policy, 41, 52, 10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.03.004 Habib, 2014, Exploring rare earths supply constraints for the emerging clean energy technologies and the role of recycling, J. Clean. Prod., 84, 348, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.035 Massari, 2013, Rare earth elements as critical raw materials: focus on international markets and future strategies, Resour. Policy, 38, 36, 10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.07.001 Achzet, 2013, How to evaluate raw material supply risk — an overview, Resour. Policy, 38, 435, 10.1016/j.resourpol.2013.06.003 Glöser, 2015, Raw material criticality in the context of classical risk assessment, Resour. Policy, 44, 35, 10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.12.003 European Commission US Department of Energy Goe, 2014, Identifying critical materials for photovoltaic in the US: a multi-metric approach, Appl. Energy, 123, 387, 10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.01.025 Rademaker, 2013, Recycling as a strategy against rare earth element criticality: a systemic evaluation of the potential yield of NdFeB magnet recycling, Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 10129, 10.1021/es305007w Peiró, 2013, Material flow analysis of scares metals: sources, functions, end-uses and aspects for future supply, Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 2939, 10.1021/es301519c Graedel, 2015, On the materials basis of modern society, PNAS, 112, 6295, 10.1073/pnas.1312752110 Nassar, 2015, Limitation to elemental substitution as exemplified by the platinum-group metals, Green Chem., 17, 2226, 10.1039/C4GC02197E Pavel, 2016, Critical raw materials in lighting applications: substitution opportunities and implication on their demand, Phys. Status Solidi A, 216, 2937, 10.1002/pssa.201600594 Smith, 2016, Multifaced material substitution: the case of NdFeB magnets, 2010–2015, JOM, 7, 1964, 10.1007/s11837-016-1913-2 Graedel, 2002, Material substitution: a resource supply perspective, Resour. Conserv. Recycl., 34, 107, 10.1016/S0921-3449(01)00097-0 Ayres, 2007, On the practical limits to substitution, Ecol. Econ., 61, 115, 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.02.011 Nakamura, 2011, Managing the scarcity of chemical elements, Nat. Mater., 10, 158, 10.1038/nmat2969 Powell, 2011, Sparing the rare earths: potential shortages of useful metals inspire scientists to seek alternatives for magnet technologies, Sci. News, 180, 18 Kumar, 2014, Electric propulsion system for electric vehicular technology: a review, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev., 29, 924, 10.1016/j.rser.2013.09.014 Widmer, 2015, Electric vehicle traction motors without rare earth magnets, Sustain. Mater. Technol., 3, 7 Gutfleisch, 2011, Magnetic materials and devices for the 21st century: stronger, lighter, and more energy efficient, Adv. Mater., 23, 821, 10.1002/adma.201002180 Speirs Thiel Fraunhofer IAO CRM_Innonet, 2015, Substitution of Critical raw Materials Paulsen Els INSG insight Benecki Roskill Information Services, 2015 Shepard International Energy Agency Zhou Buchert The Boston Consulting Group EU FP7 Marie-Curie Initial Training Network (EREAN) Hoenderdaal, 2013, Can a dysprosium shortage threaten green energy technologies?, Energy, 49, 344, 10.1016/j.energy.2012.10.043 PRNewswire European Commission E-Magnets UK Binnemans, 2013, Recycling of rare earths: a critical review, J. Clean. Prod., 51, 1, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.12.037 C.C. Pavel, R. Lacal-Arántegui, A. Marmier, E. Tzimas, D. Schüler, M. Buchert, D. Blagoeva, Role of rare earths in permanent magnets and review of substitution opportunities in wind turbines, Manuscript submitted for publication to Resour. Policy. (2017) (MS Ref No JRPO_2017_7). Lacal-Arántegui, 2015, Materials use in electricity generators in wind turbines — state-of-the-art and future specification, J. Clean. Prod., 87, 275, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.09.047 Ruland, 2015 Widmer Green Car Congress press release MotorBrain press release E-mobil BW Hackmann, 2013, Comparison of the performance capabilities and impacts on production of different e-traction motors: synchronous machine, PM machine, induction machine and reluctance machine Continental Corporation, Axle Drive System Speed 2E project Kakihara, 2013, Rotor Structure in 50kW Spoke-type Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor With Ferrite Permanent Magnets for Automotive Applications, 606 Lay Yaskawa Electric Corporation news release Green Car Congress press release Stoll, 2013 VENUS FP7 EU project Hornick