Role of ginsenosides, the main active components of Panax ginseng , in inflammatory responses and diseases

Abbas, 2012

Medzhitov, 2007, Recognition of microorganisms and activation of the immune response, Nature, 449, 819, 10.1038/nature06246

Lodish, 2000

Janeway, 2001

Medzhitov, 1998, Innate immune recognition and control of adaptive immune responses, Semin Immunol, 10, 351, 10.1006/smim.1998.0136

Rus, 2005, The role of the complement system in innate immunity, Immunol Res, 33, 103, 10.1385/IR:33:2:103

Janeway, 2005

Abbas, 1996, Functional diversity of helper T lymphocytes, Nature, 383, 787, 10.1038/383787a0

McHeyzer-Williams, 2006, Helper T cell-regulated B cell immunity, Curr Top Microbiol Immunol, 311, 59

Hong, 2013, The efficacy of red ginseng in type 1 and type 2 diabetes in animals, Evidence Based Complement Alternat Med, 2013, 593181, 10.1155/2013/593181

Helmes, 2004, Cancer prevention and therapeutics: Panax ginseng, Altern Med Rev, 9, 259

Ernst, 2005, Complementary/alternative medicine for hypertension: a mini-review, Wiener Med Wochenschr, 155, 386, 10.1007/s10354-005-0205-1

Jeong, 2002, Effect of butanol fraction of Panax ginseng head on gastric lesion and ulcer, Arch Pharm Res, 25, 61, 10.1007/BF02975263

Kiefer, 2003, Panax ginseng, Am Fam Physician, 68, 1539

Yun, 2001, Brief introduction of Panax ginseng CA Meyer, J Korean Med Sci, 16, S3, 10.3346/jkms.2001.16.S.S3

Gillis, 1997, Panax ginseng pharmacology: a nitric oxide link?, Biochem Pharmacol, 54, 1, 10.1016/S0006-2952(97)00193-7

Attele, 1999, Ginseng pharmacology: multiple constituents and multiple actions, Biochem Pharmacol, 58, 1685, 10.1016/S0006-2952(99)00212-9

Hasegawa, 2004, Proof of the mysterious efficacy of ginseng: basic and clinical trials: metabolic activation of ginsenoside: deglycosylation by intestinal bacteria and esterification with fatty acid, J Pharmacol Sci, 95, 153, 10.1254/jphs.FMJ04001X4

Chang-Xiao, 1992, Recent advances on ginseng research in China, J Ethnopharmacol, 36, 27, 10.1016/0378-8741(92)90057-X

Ferrero-Miliani, 2007, Chronic inflammation: importance of NOD2 and NALP3 in interleukin-1β generation, Clin Exp Immunol, 147, 227, 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2006.03261.x

Medzhitov, 2008, Origin and physiological roles of inflammation, Nature, 454, 428, 10.1038/nature07201

Lange, 2011, Defining the origins of the NOD-like receptor system at the base of animal evolution, Mol Biol Evol, 28, 1687, 10.1093/molbev/msq349

Proell, 2008, The Nod-like receptor (NLR) family: a tale of similarities and differences, PLoS One, 3, e2119, 10.1371/journal.pone.0002119

Roach, 2005, The evolution of vertebrate Toll-like receptors, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 102, 9577, 10.1073/pnas.0502272102

Martinon, 2009, The inflammasomes: guardians of the body, Annu Rev Immunol, 27, 229, 10.1146/annurev.immunol.021908.132715

Coussens, 2002, Inflammation and cancer, Nature, 420, 860, 10.1038/nature01322

González-Chávez, 2011, Pathophysiological implications between chronic inflammation and the development of diabetes and obesity, Cir Cir, 79, 209

Tracy, 2003, Emerging relationships of inflammation, cardiovascular disease and chronic diseases of aging, Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord, 27, 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802497

Wyss-Coray, 2006, Inflammation in Alzheimer disease: driving force, bystander or beneficial response?, Nat Med, 12, 1005

Rhule, 2006, Panax notoginseng attenuates LPS-induced pro-inflammatory mediators in RAW264.7 cells, J Ethnopharmacol, 106, 121, 10.1016/j.jep.2005.12.012

Cho, 2001, In vitro inhibitory effect of protopanaxadiol ginsenosides on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha production and its modulation by known TNF-alpha antagonists, Planta Med, 67, 213, 10.1055/s-2001-12005

Joh, 2011, Ginsenoside Rb1 and its metabolite compound K inhibit IRAK-1 activation—the key step of inflammation, Biochem Pharmacol, 82, 278, 10.1016/j.bcp.2011.05.003

Wood, 1998, Treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis, N Engl J Med, 338, 736, 10.1056/NEJM199803123381107

Ginaldi, 2005, Osteoporosis, inflammation and ageing, Immun Ageing, 2, 1, 10.1186/1742-4933-2-14

Spector, 1993, Risk of vertebral fracture in women with rheumatoid arthritis, BMJ, 306, 558, 10.1136/bmj.306.6877.558

Gough, 1994, Generalised bone loss in patients with early rheumatoid arthritis, Lancet, 344, 23, 10.1016/S0140-6736(94)91049-9

Bernstein, 2000, The incidence of fracture among patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a population-based cohort study, Ann Intern Med, 133, 795, 10.7326/0003-4819-133-10-200011210-00012

Schoon, 2000, Bone mineral density in patients with recently diagnosed inflammatory bowel disease, Gastroenterology, 119, 1203, 10.1053/gast.2000.19280

Bultink, 2005, Prevalence of and risk factors for low bone mineral density and vertebral fractures in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, Arthritis Rheum, 52, 2044, 10.1002/art.21110

Mundy, 2007, Osteoporosis and inflammation, Nutr Rev, 65, S147, 10.1301/nr.2007.dec.S147-S151

Teitelbaum, 2007, Osteoclasts: what do they do and how do they do it?, Am J Pathol, 170, 427, 10.2353/ajpath.2007.060834

Cheng, 2012, Ginsenoside Rb1 inhibits osteoclastogenesis by modulating NF-κB and MAPKs pathways, Food Chem Toxicol, 50, 1610, 10.1016/j.fct.2012.02.019

Cuong, 2009, Glucocorticoid receptor agonist compound K regulates Dectin-1-dependent inflammatory signaling through inhibition of reactive oxygen species, Life Sci, 85, 625, 10.1016/j.lfs.2009.08.014

Park, 2012, Anti-inflammatory mechanism of compound K in activated microglia and its neuroprotective effect on experimental stroke in mice, J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 341, 59, 10.1124/jpet.111.189035

Park, 2005, Inhibitory effect of ginsenoside Rb1 and compound K on NO and prostaglandin E2 biosyntheses of RAW264.7 cells induced by lipopolysaccharide, Biol Pharmacol Bull, 28, 652, 10.1248/bpb.28.652

Lee, 2005, Antitumor promotional effects of a novel intestinal bacterial metabolite (IH-901) derived from the protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides in mouse skin, Carcinogenesis, 26, 359, 10.1093/carcin/bgh313

Li, 2014, Ginsenoside metabolite compound K promotes recovery of dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis and inhibits inflammatory responses by suppressing NF-κB activation, PLoS One, 9, e87810, 10.1371/journal.pone.0087810

Yang, 2008, The ginsenoside metabolite compound K, a novel agonist of glucocorticoid receptor, induces tolerance to endotoxin-induced lethal shock, J Cell Mol Med, 12, 1739, 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2007.00181.x

Wu, 2007, Differential effects of ginsenosides on NO and TNF-α production by LPS-activated N9 microglia, Int Immunopharmacol, 7, 313, 10.1016/j.intimp.2006.04.021

Ye, 2011, Ginsenoside Rd attenuates early oxidative damage and sequential inflammatory response after transient focal ischemia in rats, Neurochem Int, 58, 391, 10.1016/j.neuint.2010.12.015

Kim, 2013, Ginsenoside Rd inhibits the expressions of iNOS and COX-2 by suppressing NF-κB in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and mouse liver, J Ginseng Res, 37, 54, 10.5142/jgr.2013.37.54

Lee, 2012, Ginsenoside Re ameliorates inflammation by inhibiting the binding of lipopolysaccharide to TLR4 on macrophages, J Agric Food Chem, 60, 9595, 10.1021/jf301372g

Olson, 2004, Microglia initiate central nervous system innate and adaptive immune responses through multiple TLRs, The J Immunol, 173, 3916, 10.4049/jimmunol.173.6.3916

McGeer, 1988, Reactive microglia are positive for HLA-DR in the substantia nigra of Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease brains, Neurology, 38, 1285, 10.1212/WNL.38.8.1285

Lee, 2012, Effects of ginsenoside Re on LPS-induced inflammatory mediators in BV2 microglial cells, BMC Complement Altern Med, 12, 196, 10.1186/1472-6882-12-196

Hu, 2011, Inhibitory effect of ginsenoside Rg1 on lipopolysaccharide-induced microglial activation in mice, Brain Res, 1374, 8, 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.11.069

Zong, 2012, Ginsenoside Rg1 attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses via the phospholipase C-γ1 signaling pathway in murine BV-2 microglial cells, Curr Med Chem, 19, 770, 10.2174/092986712798992066

Sun, 2016, Glucocorticoid receptor is involved in the neuroprotective effect of ginsenoside Rg1 against inflammation-induced dopaminergic neuronal degeneration in substantia nigra, J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol, 155, 94, 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.09.040

Wang, 2014, Ginsenoside Rg1 regulates innate immune responses in macrophages through differentially modulating the NF-κB and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathways, Int Immunopharmacol, 23, 77, 10.1016/j.intimp.2014.07.028

Gao, 2015, Anti-inflammatory function of ginsenoside Rg1 on alcoholic hepatitis through glucocorticoid receptor related nuclear factor-kappa B pathway, J Ethnopharmacol, 173, 231, 10.1016/j.jep.2015.07.020

Lee, 2015, Anti-inflammatory effects of ginsenoside Rg1 and its metabolites ginsenoside Rh1 and 20(S)-protopanaxatriol in mice with TNBS-induced colitis, Eur J Pharmacol, 762, 333, 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.06.011

Tao, 2014, Ginsenoside Rg1 protects mouse liver against ischemia–reperfusion injury through anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptosis properties, J Surg Res, 191, 231, 10.1016/j.jss.2014.03.067

Guo, 2011, Rb1 postconditioning attenuates liver warm ischemia–reperfusion injury through ROS–NO–HIF pathway, Life Sci, 88, 598, 10.1016/j.lfs.2011.01.022

Yang, 2015, Ginsenoside Rg1 suppressed inflammation and neuron apoptosis by activating PPARγ/HO-1 in hippocampus in rat model of cerebral ischemia–reperfusion injury, Int J Clin Exp Pathol, 8, 2484

Xie, 2015, Neuroprotective effect of ginsenoside-Rg1 on cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats by downregulating protease-activated receptor-1 expression, Life Sci, 121, 145, 10.1016/j.lfs.2014.12.002

Li, 2015, Analyzing the anti-ischemia–reperfusion injury effects of ginsenoside Rb1 mediated through the inhibition of p38α MAPK, Can J Physiol Pharmacol, 94, 97, 10.1139/cjpp-2014-0164

Joo, 2008, Prevention of inflammation-mediated neurotoxicity by Rg3 and its role in microglial activation, Biol Pharm Bull, 31, 1392, 10.1248/bpb.31.1392

Lee, 2013, Ginsenoside rg3 alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced learning and memory impairments by anti-inflammatory activity in rats, Biomol Ther (Seoul), 21, 381, 10.4062/biomolther.2013.053

Yoon, 2015, Ginsenoside Rg3 regulates S-nitrosylation of the NLRP3 inflammasome via suppression of iNOS, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 463, 1184, 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.06.080

Kim, 2012, Ginsenoside Rg5 ameliorates lung inflammation in mice by inhibiting the binding of LPS to toll-like receptor-4 on macrophages, Int Immunopharmacol, 12, 110, 10.1016/j.intimp.2011.10.023

Lee, 2014, Anti-inflammatory effects of ginsenosides Rg5, Rz1, and Rk1: inhibition of TNF-α-induced NF-κB, COX-2, and iNOS transcriptional expression, Phytother Res, 28, 1893, 10.1002/ptr.5203

Chu, 2014, Ginsenoside Rg5 improves cognitive dysfunction and beta-amyloid deposition in STZ-induced memory impaired rats via attenuating neuroinflammatory responses, Int Immunopharmacol, 19, 317, 10.1016/j.intimp.2014.01.018

Kim, 2013, Ginsenosides Rg5 and Rh3 protect scopolamine-induced memory deficits in mice, J Ethnopharmacol, 146, 294, 10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.047

Ahn, 2015, Ginsenoside Rg5: Rk1 attenuates TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced production of thymus-and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC/CCL17) and LPS-induced NO production via downregulation of NF-κB/p38 MAPK/STAT1 signaling in human keratinocytes and macrophages, In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim, 1

Park, 2004, Ginsenoside Rh1 possesses antiallergic and anti-inflammatory activities, Int Allergy Immunol, 133, 113, 10.1159/000076383

Jung, 2010, Ginsenoside Rh1 suppresses inducible nitric oxide synthase gene expression in IFN-γ-stimulated microglia via modulation of JAK/STAT and ERK signaling pathways, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 397, 323, 10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.05.117

Zheng, 2011, Oral administration of ginsenoside Rh1 inhibits the development of atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions induced by oxazolone in hairless mice, Int Immunopharmacol, 11, 511, 10.1016/j.intimp.2010.12.022

Bae, 2006, Ginsenosides Rg3 and Rh2 inhibit the activation of AP-1 and protein kinase A pathway in lipopolysaccharide/interferon-gamma-stimulated BV-2 microglial cells, Planta Med, 72, 627, 10.1055/s-2006-931563

Choi, 2007, Ginsenosides compound K and Rh 2 inhibit tumor necrosis factor-α-induced activation of the NF-κB and JNK pathways in human astroglial cells, Neurosci Lett, 421, 37, 10.1016/j.neulet.2007.05.017

Li, 2015, Ginsenoside Rh2 attenuates allergic airway inflammation by modulating nuclear factor-κB activation in a murine model of asthma, Mol Med Rep, 12, 6946, 10.3892/mmr.2015.4272

Bi, 2012, Sulfated derivative of 20 (S)-ginsenoside Rh2 inhibits inflammatory cytokines through MAPKs and NF-kappa B pathways in LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophages, Inflammation, 35, 1659, 10.1007/s10753-012-9482-1

Yi, 2013, Inhibitory effects of sulfated 20 (S)-ginsenoside Rh2 on the release of pro-inflammatory mediators in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells, Eur J Pharmacol, 712, 60, 10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.04.036

Kim, 2009, Ginsenoside Rp1, a ginsenoside derivative, blocks lipopolysaccharide-induced interleukin-1beta production via suppression of the NF-kappaB pathway, Planta Med, 75, 321, 10.1055/s-0028-1112218

Shen, 2011, Ginsenoside Rp 1, a ginsenoside derivative, blocks promoter activation of iNOS and Cox-2 genes by suppression of an IKKβ-mediated NF-κB pathway in HEK293 cells, J Ginseng Res, 35, 200, 10.5142/jgr.2011.35.2.200