Risk of burnout in French entrepreneurs during the COVID-19 crisis

Olivier Torrès1, Alexandre Benzari2, Christian Fisch3, Jinia Mukerjee2, Abdelaziz Swalhi1, Roy Thurik2
1Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
2Montpellier Business School, Montpellier, France
3Universität Trier, Trier, Germany

Tóm tắt

Abstract

The COVID-19 crisis presents manifest threats for entrepreneurs since their business survival is often directly at stake given the alarming economic downturn. This existential threat, together with their crucial role in the economy, is the reason for the plethora of public financial support schemes being implemented throughout the entire world. However, support schemes for mental health are lacking. We aim to investigate, first, whether burnout levels have increased during the crisis and, second, whether burnout levels during the COVID-19 crisis depend on the threat of becoming ill, having to stay at home due to the lockdown, and/or having to file for bankruptcy due to the economic downturn. We do so using seven data sets of French entrepreneurs with a temporal comparison of averages and two data sets of French entrepreneurs with a cross-sectional analysis of individuals. Our findings show that indeed, the risks of burnout have increased during the pandemic and that the threat of bankruptcy is the dominant threat. As an increasing number of studies in the entrepreneurship literature indicate that entrepreneurs’ mental health influences their activities, as well as the growth and sustainability of their ventures, our study is important and timely in its contribution, as it takes a close look at the perception of burnout in general and more specifically during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Plain English Summary

The risk of burnout in French entrepreneurs has increased significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic, which calls for not only financial support but also other forms of support. The COVID-19 pandemic presents many threats for entrepreneurs since their business survival is often directly at stake. These threats are not just financial but also related to health, such as the threat of burnout. The findings of our study show that for French entrepreneurs, the threat of burnout increased after the arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic. This finding raises the question whether this outcome is due to the threat to health, the effects of the lockdown, or the threat of bankruptcy. It appears that all three factors play important roles, although the financial threat is the dominant threat. These findings call for the extension of entrepreneurial support systems beyond the financial area by also involving an “entrepreneurship care” aspect, which includes telephone support, webinars, and mental help facilities.

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Akande, A. (1994). Coping with entrepreneurial stress: Evidence from Nigeria. Journal of Small Business Management, 32(1), 83–87.

Annink, A., Gorgievski, M., & Den Dulk, L. (2016). Financial hardship and well-being: A cross-national comparison among the European self-employed. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 25(5), 645–657.

Bah, T., & Gaillon, D. (2016). Processus suicidaire des dirigeants de petites entreprises: état des lieux et mesures de prévention. Management and Avenir, 3(85), 79–105.

Bährer-Kohler, S. (Ed.). (2013). Burnout for experts: Prevention in the context of living and working. Springer Science + Business Media.

Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2005). The crossover of burnout and work engagement among working couples. Human Relations, 58(5), 661–689.

Banerjee, D., & Rai, M. (2020). Social isolation in COVID-19: The impact of loneliness. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(6), 525–527.

Bartik, A. W., Bertrand, M., Cullen, Z., Glaeser, E. L., Luca, M., & Stanton, C. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on small business outcomes and expectations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(30), 17656–17666.

Beland, L. P., Fakorede, O., & Mikola, D. (2020). Short-term effect of COVID-19 on self-employed workers in Canada. Canadian Public Policy, 46(S1), S66–S81.

Ben Tahar, Y. (2014). Analyse du burnout en entrepreneuriat: une étude empirique sur les dirigeants de PME. PhD Thesis. Université Montpellier, France. https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01202577/document. Accessed 15 June 2020.

Ben Tahar, Y., & Torrès, O. (2013). Quelle approche pour le burnout des dirigeants de PME ? Étude exploratoire avec l’Oldenburg Burnout Inventory. In F. Guarnieri & P. Zawieja (Eds.), Épuisement professionnel – approches innovantes et pluridisciplinaires (pp. 183–195). Armand Colin.

Beugelsdijk, S., & Welzel, C. (2018). Dimensions and dynamics of national culture: Synthesizing Hofstede with Inglehart. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(10), 1469–1505.

Binder, M., & Coad, A. (2013). Life satisfaction and self-employment: A matching approach. Small Business Economics, 40(4), 1009–1033.

Block, J., Fisch, C., & Hirschmann, M. (2021). The determinants of bootstrap financing in crises: Evidence from entrepreneurial ventures in the COVID-19 pandemic. Small Business Economics, forthcoming. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00445-6.

Bodier, M., Nouël de Buzonnière, C., & Vidalenc, J. (2010). Des spécificités socioprofessionnelles régionales. In Insee Première (p. 1317). Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques (INSEE).

Bortolussi, G. (2012). L’economia dei suicidi. Marcianum Press.

Bosma, N., & Harding, R. (2007). Global entrepreneurship monitor: GEM 2006 results. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM).

Bourdeau-Lepage, L. (2020). Le confinement et ses effets sur le quotidien, premiers résultats bruts des 2ème et 3ème semaine de confinement en France. Consultation Coronavirus Territoires Espaces (CORTE).

Boyd, D. P., & Gumpert, D. E. (1983). Coping with entrepreneurial stress. Harvard Business Review, 61(2), 44–64.

Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet, 395(10227), 912–920.

Bu, F., Steptoe, A., Mak, H. W., & Fancourt, D. (2020). Time-use and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A panel analysis of 55,204 adults followed across 11 weeks of lockdown in the UK. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.08.18.20177345.

Canazei, M., Bassa, D., Jimenez, P., Bühner, M. B., Fink, A. F., Bauernhofer, K., et al. (2018). Gender differences in different dimensions of common burnout symptoms in a group of clinical burnout patients. Neuropsychiatry, 8(6), 1967–1976.

Cardon, M. S., & Patel, P. C. (2015). Is stress worth it? Stress-related health and wealth trade-offs for entrepreneurs. Applied Psychology, 64(2), 379–420.

Carod-Artal, F. J., & Vázquez-Cabrera, C. (2013). Burnout syndrome in an international setting. In S. Bährer-Kohler (Ed.), Burnout for experts: Prevention in the context of living and working (pp. 15–35). Springer Science + Business Media.

Chao, L. W., Pauly, M., Szrek, H., Pereira, N. S., Bundred, F., Cross, C., et al. (2007). Poor health kills small business: Illness and microenterprises in South Africa. Health Affairs, 26(2), 474–482.

Collins, C. J., Hanges, P. J., & Locke, E. A. (2004). The relationship of achievement motivation to entrepreneurial behavior: A meta-analysis. Human Performance, 17, 95–117.

Cordes, C. L., & Dougherty, T. W. (1993). A review and an integration of research on job burnout. Academy of Management Review, 18(4), 621–656.

Coutrot, T. (2016). Travail et bien-être psychologique: L’apport de l’enquête Conditions du Travail-Risque Psycho-Sociaux 2016. In Document d’études (p. 217). Direction de l’animation de la recherche, des études et des statistiques (DARES).

Coyne, C., Ballard, J. D., & Blader, I. J. (2020). Recommendations for future university pandemic responses: What the first COVID-19 shutdown taught us. PLoS Biology, 18(8), e3000889. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000889.

Cullen, W., Gulati, G., & Kelly, B. D. (2020). Mental health in the COVID-19 pandemic. QJM : Monthly Journal of the Association of Physicians, 113(5), 311–312.

Dahl, M. S., Nielsen, J., & Mojtabai, R. (2010). The effects of becoming an entrepreneur on the use of psychotropics among entrepreneurs and their spouses. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 38(8), 857–863.

Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512.

Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542–575.

Diener, E., & Chan, M. Y. (2011). Happy people live longer: Subjective well-being contributes to health and longevity. Applied Psychology. Health and Well-Being, 3(1), 1–43.

Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Oishi, S. (2005). Subjective well-being. The science of happiness and life satisfaction. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of cognitive psychology (pp. 63–73). Oxford University Press.

Dijkhuizen, J., Van Veldhoven, M., & Schalk, R. (2014). Development and validation of the entrepreneurial job demands scale. International Journal of Knowledge, Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 2, 70–88.

Drnovsek, M., Örtqvist, D., & Wincent, J. (2010). The effectiveness of coping strategies used by entrepreneurs and their impact on personal well-being and venture performance. Journal of Economics and Business, 28, 193–220.

Dryhurst, S., Schneider, C. R., Kerr, J., Freeman, A. L., Recchia, G., van der Bles, S., Spiegelhalter, D., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Risk perceptions of COVID-19 around the world. Journal of Risk Research, 23(7–8), 1–13.

Durodié, B. (2020). Handling uncertainty and ambiguity in the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy, 12(S1), S61–S62.

Eggers, F. (2020). Masters of disasters? Challenges and opportunities for SMEs in times of crisis. Journal of Business Research, 116, 199–208.

Fairlie, R. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on small business owners: Evidence from the first three months after widespread social-distancing restrictions. Journal of Economics and Management Strategy, 29(4), 727–740.

Fernet, C., Torrès, O., Austin, S., & St-Pierre, J. (2016). The psychological costs of owning and managing an SME: Linking job stressors, occupational loneliness, entrepreneurial orientation, and burnout. Burnout Research, 3(2), 45–53.

Freudenberger, H. J. (1975). The staff burn-out syndrome in alternative institutions. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 12(1), 73–82.

George-Levi, S., Schmidt-Barad, T., Natan, I., & Margalit, M. (2020). Sense of coherence and burnout among school psychologists: The moderating role of loneliness. Current Psychology, 29, 1–8.

Giallonardo, V., Sampogna, G., Del Vecchio, V., Luciano, M., Albert, U., Carmassi, C., et al. (2020). The impact of quarantine and physical distancing following COVID-19 on mental health: Study protocol of a multicentric Italian population trial. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 533. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00533.

Giusti, E. M., Pedroli, E., D’Aniello, G. E., Stramba Badiale, C., Pietrabissa, G., Manna, C., et al. (2020). The psychological impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on health professionals: A cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1684. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01684.

Godin, I., Desmarez, P., & Mahieu, C. (2017). Company size, work-home interference, and well-being of self-employed entrepreneurs. Archives of Public Health, 75(69), 1–9.

Gorgievski, M. J., & Laguna, M. P. (2008). More than money: Gain and loss spirals in entrepreneurship. In L. Moriano, M. J. Gorgievski, & M. Lukes (Eds.), Teaching psychology of entrepreneurship. Perspectives from six European countries (pp. 159–177). UNED.

Guiliani, F (2016). La vigilance entrepreneuriale : les antécédents liés au sommeil du dirigeant de PME, Thèse de doctorat en Sciences de Gestion, Université de Montpellier 1. https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01498211/document. Accessed 15 June 2020.

Guiliani, F., & Torrès, O. (2018). Entrepreneurship: An insomniac discipline? An empirical study on SME owners/directors. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 35(1), 81–101.

Gumpert, D. E., & Boyd, D. P. (1984). The loneliness of the small-business owner. Harvard Business Review, 62(6), 18–24.

Gunia, B. C. (2018). The sleep trap: Do sleep problems prompt entrepreneurial motives but undermine entrepreneurial means? Academy of Management Perspectives, 32(2), 228–242.

Gunnarsson, K., & Josephson, M. (2011). Entrepreneurs’ self-reported health, social life, and strategies for maintaining good health. Journal of Occupational Health, 53(3), 205–213.

Hatak, I., Rauch, A., Fink, M., & Baranyi, A. (2015). Doing well by being well: The interplay of physical well-being, burn-out symptoms and firm performance of necessity-, rationality- and opportunity-driven entrepreneurs. Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, 35(5), 123–129.

Hébert, R. F., & Link, A. N. (1989). In search of the meaning of entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 1(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00389915.

Hessels, J., Rietveld, C. A., & Van der Zwan, P. (2017). Self-employment and work-related stress: The mediating role of job control and job demand. Journal of Business Venturing, 32(2), 178–196.

Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources. A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. The American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524.

Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: Advancing conservation of resources theory. Applied Psychology, 50, 337–421.

Hobfoll, S. E. (2002). Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Review of General Psychology, 6, 307–324.

Hohagen, F., Rink, K., Käppler, C., Schramm, E., Riemann, D., Weyerer, S., & Berger, M. (1993). Prevalence and treatment of insomnia in general practice. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 242(6), 329–336.

Hombrados-Mendieta, I., & Cosano-Rivas, F. (2013). Burnout, workplace support, job satisfaction and life satisfaction among social workers in Spain: A structural equation model. International Social Work, 56(2), 228–246.

Hossain, K. A., Roy, S., Ullah, M. M., Kabir, R., & Arafat, S. Y. (2020). COVID-19 and mental health challenges in Bangladesh. Advances in Medical, Dental and Health Sciences, 3(2), 31–33.

House, J. S., Landis, K. R., & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health. Science, 241(4865), 540–545.

Hu, D., Kong, Y., Li, W., Han, Q., Zhang, X., Zhu, L., et al. (2020). Frontline nurses’ burnout, anxiety, depression, and fear statuses and their associated factors during the COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan, China: A large-scale cross-sectional study. EClinicalMedicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100424.

INSEE. (2020a). Point de conjoncture par Jean-Luc Tavernier, communiqué de presse du jeudi 26 mars 2020. Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques (INSEE).

INSEE. (2020b). Point de conjoncture par Jean-Luc Tavernier, communiqué de presse du jeudi 7 mai 2020. Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques (INSEE).

Jamal, M. (2007). Burnout and self-employment: A cross-cultural empirical study. Stress and Health, 23(4), 249–256.

Jeleva, M. (2005). Self-perceived mortality risks and the choice of death insurance in an empirical study. Recherches Économiques de Louvain, 71(1), 95–116.

Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R. P., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Organizational stress: Studies in role conflict and ambiguity. Wiley.

Kaneko, S., Ogyu, H., Torrès, O., & Kamei, K. (2011). Mental health of managers of small and medium enterprises as seen from the viewpoint of risk management. Journal of Disaster Research, 6(2), 204–211.

Kristensen, T. S., Borritz, M., Villadsen, E., & Christensen, K. B. (2005). The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory: A new tool for the assessment of burnout. Work and Stress, 19(3), 192–207.

Kuan-Han, L., Chau-Chung, W., Tzong-Shinn, C., Tien-Shang, H., & Yen-Yuan, C. (2020). Employer or employee: Who is more likely to suffer from burnout? Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 62(4), 154–159.

Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. McGraw-Hill.

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.

Lechat, T., & Torrès, O. (2016). Exploring the negative affective events of the entrepreneurial activity: Their experience on emotional stress and contribution to burnout risk. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. H. J. Hartel, & W. J. Zerbe (Eds.), Emotions and organizational governance - research on emotion in organizations (Vol. 12, pp. 69–99). Emerald Group Published Limited.

Lerman, M. P., Munyon, T. P., & Carr, J. C. (2020). Stress events theory: A theoretical framework for understanding entrepreneurial behavior. In P. L. Perrewé, P. D. Harms, & C.-H. Chang (Eds.), Entrepreneurial and small business stressors, experienced stress, and well-being research in occupational Stress and well being (18th ed., pp. 35–63). Emerald publishing limited.

Lourel, M., Gueguen, N., & Mouda, F. (2007). L’évaluation du burnout de Pines: adaptation et validation en version française de l’instrument Burnout Measure Short version (BMS-10). Pratiques Psychologiques, 13(3), 353–364.

Malach-Pines, A. (2005). The burnout measure, short version. International Journal of Stress Management, 12(1), 78–88.

Markard, J., & Rosenbloom, D. (2020). A tale of two crises: COVID-19 and climate. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 16(1), 53–60.

Maslach, C. (1976). Burned-out. Human Behavior, 5, 16–22.

Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (1997). The truth about burnout. How organization cause personal stress and what to do about it. Jossey-Bass.

Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (2014). Editorial. Burnout Research, 1(1), 1–2.

Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., & Leiter, M. P. (1996). MBI: Maslach burnout inventory (3rd ed.). Consulting Psychologists Press.

Meahjohn, I., & Persad, P. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on entrepreneurship globally. Journal of Economics and Business, 3(3), 1165–1173.

Mintzberg, H. (1979). The structuring of organizations. Prentice-Hall.

Mol, E., Ho, V. T., & Pollack, J. M. (2018). Predicting entrepreneurial burnout in a moderated mediated model of job fit. Journal of Small Business Management, 56(3), 392–411.

Morgeson, F. P., Mitchell, T. R., & Liu, D. (2015). Event system theory: An event-oriented approach to the organizational sciences. The Academy of Management Review, 40(4), 515–537.

Morrish, S. C., & Jones, R. (2020). Post-disaster business recovery: An entrepreneurial marketing perspective. Journal of Business Research, 113, 83–92.

Mucci, N., Giorgi, G., Roncaioli, M., Perez, J. F., & Arcangeli, G. (2016). The correlation between stress and economic crisis: A systematic review. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 12, 983–993.

Odriozola-González, P., Planchuelo-Gómez, Á., Irurtia, M. J., & de Luis-García, R. (2020). Psychological effects of the COVID-19 outbreak and lockdown among students and workers of a Spanish university. Psychiatry Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113108.

Omrane, A., Kammoun, A., & Seaman, C. (2018). Entrepreneurial burnout: Causes, consequences, and way out. FIIB Business Review, 7(1), 28–42.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (OECD) (2020) Coronavirus (COVID-19): SME policy responses. OECD Centre for Entrepreneurship, SMEs, Regions and Cities (CFE) for discussion by the OECD Working Party on SMEs and Entrepreneurship (WPSMEE). https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/coronavirus-covid-19-sme-policy-responses-04440101/. Accessed 16 July 2020.

Ornell, F., Schuch, J. B., Sordi, A. O., & Kessler, F. H. P. (2020). “Pandemic fear” and COVID-19: Mental health burden and strategies. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 42(3), 232–235.

Palmer, S., Panchal, S., & O’Riordan, S. (2020). Could the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic have any positive impact on wellbeing? European Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, 4(10), 1–7.

Perry, S., Penney, L., & Witt, L. (2008). Coping with the constraints of self-employment: A person-situation model of entrepreneurial burnout. Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings, 2008(1), 1–6.

Pfefferbaum, B., & North, C. S. (2020). Mental health and the COVID-19 pandemic. The New England Journal of Medicine, 383(6), 510–512.

Pines, A. M. (1993). Burnout: An existential perspective. In W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds.), Series in applied psychology: Social issues and questions. Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 33–51). Taylor & Francis.

Pines, A. M. (1994). Burnout in political activism: An existential perspective. Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration, 16(4), 381–394.

Pines, A. M. (2000). Treating career burnout: A psychodynamic existential perspective. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(5), 633–642.

Pines, A., & Aronson, E. (1988). Career burnout: Causes and cures. Free Press.

Purvanova, R. K., & Muros, J. P. (2010). Gender differences in burnout: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77(2), 168–185.

Reynolds, P. D., Camp, S. M., Bygrave, W. D., Autio, E., & Hay, M. (2002). Global entrepreneurship monitor GEM 2001 summary report. London Business School and Babson College.

Rossi, R., Socci, V., Talevi, D., Mensi, S., Niolu, C., Pacitti, F., et al. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown measures impact on mental health among the general population in Italy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11(790), 1–6.

Sartre, J.-P. (2009). L’existentialisme est un humanisme. Collection Folio/Essais.

Schaufeli, W. B. (2017). Burnout: A short socio-cultural history. In S. Neckel, A. K. Schaffner, & G. Wagner (Eds.), Burnout, fatigue, exhaustion (pp. 105–127). Palgrave Macmillan.

Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc..

Shepherd, D. A. (2020). COVID 19 and entrepreneurship: Time to pivot? Journal of Management Studies, 57(8), 1750–1753.

Shepherd, C. D., Marchisio, G., Morrish, S. C., Deacon, J. H., & Miles, M. P. (2010). Entrepreneurial burnout: Exploring antecedents, dimensions and outcomes. Journal of Research in Marketing and Entrepreneurship, 12(1), 71–79.

Shirom, A., & Melamed, S. (2006). A comparison of the construct validity of two burnout measures in two groups of professionals. International Journal of Stress Management, 13(2), 176–200.

Soenen, G., Eib, C., & Torrès, O. (2019). The cost of injustice: Overall justice, emotional exhaustion, and performance among entrepreneurs: Do founders fare better? Small Business Economics, 53(2), 355–368.

Stephan, U. (2018). Entrepreneurs’ mental health and well-being: A review and research agenda. Academy of Management Perspectives, 32(3), 290–322.

Tetrick, L. E., Slack, K. J., Da Silva, N., & Sinclair, R. R. (2000). A comparison of the stress–strain process for business owners and nonowners: Differences in job demands, emotional exhaustion, satisfaction, and social support. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(4), 464–476.

Thorgren, S., & Williams, T. A. (2020). Staying alive during an unfolding crisis: How SMEs ward off impending disaster. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 14, e00187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2020.e00187.

Torrès, O. (2012). Vers une salutogénèse entrepreneuriale. In O. Torrès (Ed.), La santé du dirigeant – de la souffrance patronale à l’entrepreneuriat salutaire (pp. 211–212). Editions De Boeck.

Torrès, O., & Thurik, R. (2019). Small business owners and health. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 311–321.

Torrès, O., Swalhi, A., Mukerjee, J., Lasch, F., & Thurik, R. (2021a). Health perception of French SME owners during the covid-19 pandemic. International Review of Entrepreneurship, forthcoming.

Torrès, O., Benzari, A., Swalhi, A., & Thurik, R. (2021b). Confinement et risque de burnout des dirigeants-propriétaires de PME : le syndrome d’épuisement d’empêchement. Revue Internationale des PME, forthcoming.

Trnka, R., & Lorencova, R. (2020). Fear, anger, and media-induced trauma during the outbreak of COVID-19 in the Czech Republic. Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy, 12(5), 546–549.

Van Bavel, J. J., Baicker, K., Boggio, P. S., Capraro, V., Cichocka, A., Cikara, M., et al. (2020). Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response. Natural Human Behaviour, 4, 460–471.

Van der Zwan, P., Thurik, R., Verheul, I., & Hessels, J. (2016). Factors influencing the entrepreneurial engagement of opportunity and necessity entrepreneurs. Eurasean Business Review, 6(3), 273–295.

Van der Zwan, P., Hessels, J., & Rietveld, C. A. (2018). Self-employment and satisfaction with life, work, and leisure. Journal of Economic Psychology, 64, 73–88.

Voltmer, E., Spahn, C., Schaarschmidt, U., & Kieschke, U. (2011). Work-related behavior and experience patterns of entrepreneurs compared to teachers and physicians. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 84(5), 479–490.

Wach, D., Stephan, U., Weinberger, E., & Wegge, J. (2020). Entrepreneurs’ stressors and well-being: A recovery perspective and diary study. Journal of Business Venturing. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2020.106016.

Wang, Y., Zhang, H., Lei, J., & Yu, Y. (2019). Burnout in Chinese social work: Differential predictability of the components of the Maslach Burnout Inventory. International Journal of Social Welfare, 28(2), 217–228.

Wei, X., Cang, S., & Hisrich, R. D. (2015). Entrepreneurial stressors as predictors of entrepreneurial burnout. Psychological Reports, 116(1), 74–88.

White, J. V., & Gupta, V. K. (2020). Stress and well-being in entrepreneurship: A critical review and future research agenda. In P. L. Perrewé, P. D. Harms, & C.-H. Chang (Eds.), Entrepreneurial and small business stressors, experienced stress, and well-being research in occupational stress and well being (18th ed., pp. 65–93). Emerald publishing limited.

World Health Organization. (WHO). (2019). International classification of diseases for mortality and morbidity statistics (11th revision ed.). World Health Organization https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en. Accessed 5 June 2020.

Yildirim, M., & Solmaz, F. (2020). COVID-19 burnout, COVID-19 stress and resilience: Initial psychometric properties of COVID-19 Burnout Scale. Death Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2020.1818885.

Zvikaramba, A., Kruglikov, S. V., Zimucha, T., & Chinakidzwa, M. (2020). Disaster response supply chain in a city: The role of SMEs. International Journal of Supply Chain and Operations Resilience, 4(1), 85–101.