Revenge of the “sit” II: Does lifestyle impact neuronal and cognitive health through distinct mechanisms associated with sedentary behavior and physical activity?

Abbatecola, 2004, Insulin resistance and executive dysfunction in older persons, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 52, 1713, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52466.x Aberg, 2009, Cardiovascular fitness is associated with cognition in young adulthood, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 20906, 10.1073/pnas.0905307106 Ahlskog, 2011, Physical exercise as a preventive or disease-modifying treatment of dementia and brain aging, Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 86, 876, 10.4065/mcp.2011.0252 Ainsworth, 2011, 2011 Compendium of physical activities: a second update of codes and MET values, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43, 1575, 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31821ece12 Allison, 2012, Sedentary behavior and adiposity-associated inflammation: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42, 8, 10.1016/j.amepre.2011.09.023 Alzheimer's Association, 2010, 2010 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures, Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association, 6, 158, 10.1016/j.jalz.2010.01.009 Athilingam, 2013, Elevated levels of interleukin 6 and C-reactive protein associated with cognitive impairment in heart failure, Congestive Heart Failure, 19, 92, 10.1111/chf.12007 Babyak, 2000, Exercise treatment for major depression: maintenance of therapeutic benefit at 10 months, Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 633, 10.1097/00006842-200009000-00006 Berchtold, 2013, Exercise and cognitive function: neurobiological mechanisms Bergouignan, 2011, Physical inactivity as the culprit of metabolic inflexibility: evidence from bed-rest studies, Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, MD: 1985), 111, 1201, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00698.2011 Bertsch, 2009, Resting cerebral blood flow, attention, and aging, Brain Research, 1267, 77, 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.02.053 Björntorp, 2001, Do stress reactions cause abdominal obesity and comorbidities?, Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 2, 73, 10.1046/j.1467-789x.2001.00027.x Bjorntorp, 2000, Obesity and cortisol, Nutrition, 16, 924, 10.1016/S0899-9007(00)00422-6 Blaber, 2012, Cerebrovascular autoregulation: lessons learned from spaceflight research, European Journal of Applied Physiology Black, 1990, Learning causes synaptogenesis, whereas motor activity causes angiogenesis, in cerebellar cortex of adult rats, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 87, 5568, 10.1073/pnas.87.14.5568 Blakesley, 1996, Signaling via the insulin-like growth factor-I receptor: does it differ from insulin receptor signaling?, Cytokine and Growth Factor Reviews, 7, 153, 10.1016/1359-6101(96)00015-9 Boden, 1997, Role of fatty acids in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and NIDDM, Diabetes, 46, 3, 10.2337/diab.46.1.3 Brureau, 2013, Deregulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functions in an Alzheimer's disease rat model, Neurobiology of Aging, 34, 1426, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.11.015 Buchman, 2012, Total daily physical activity and the risk of AD and cognitive decline in older adults, Neurology, 78, 1323, 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182535d35 Buckner, 2008, The Brain's default network: anatomy, function, and relevance to disease, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124, 1, 10.1196/annals.1440.011 Bullitt, 2009, The effect of exercise on the cerebral vasculature of healthy aged subjects as visualized by MR angiography, AJNR: American Journal of Neuroradiology, 30, 1857, 10.3174/ajnr.A1695 Burdette, 2010, Using network science to evaluate exercise-associated brain changes in older adults, Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 2, 23 Carro, 2000, Circulating insulin-like growth factor I mediates effects of exercise on the brain, Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 2926, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-08-02926.2000 Caspersen, 1985, Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research, Public Health Reports, 100, 126 Chaddock, 2010, A neuroimaging investigation of the association between aerobic fitness, hippocampal volume, and memory performance in preadolescent children, Brain Research, 1358, 172, 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.08.049 Chaddock-Heyman, 2013, The effects of physical activity on functional MRI activation associated with cognitive control in children: a randomized controlled intervention, Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 72, 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00072 Christie, 2008, Exercising our brains: how physical activity impacts synaptic plasticity in the dentate gyrus, Neuromolecular Medicine, 10, 47, 10.1007/s12017-008-8033-2 Chu, 2010, NO answer to Alzheimer's disease?, Circulation Research, 107, 1400, 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.110.234450 Church, 2011, Trends over 5 decades in U.S. occupation-related physical activity and their associations with obesity, PLoS ONE, 6, e19657, 10.1371/journal.pone.0019657 Cirillo, 2009, Motor cortex plasticity induced by paired associative stimulation is enhanced in physically active individuals, Journal of Physiology, 587, 5831, 10.1113/jphysiol.2009.181834 Clemmons, 2004, Role of insulin-like growth factor in maintaining normal glucose homeostasis, Hormone Research, 62, 77, 10.1159/000080763 Colcombe, 2003, Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study, Psychological Science, 14, 125, 10.1111/1467-9280.t01-1-01430 Colcombe, 2004, Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 3316, 10.1073/pnas.0400266101 Colcombe, 2006, Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans, Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 61, 1166, 10.1093/gerona/61.11.1166 Cotman, 2007, Exercise builds brain health: key roles of growth factor cascades and inflammation, Trends in Neurosciences, 30, 464, 10.1016/j.tins.2007.06.011 Craft, 2009, The role of metabolic disorders in Alzheimer disease and vascular dementia: two roads converged, Archives of Neurology, 66, 300, 10.1001/archneurol.2009.27 Craft, 2012, Evidence that women meeting physical activity guidelines do not sit less: an observational inclinometry study, International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9, 122, 10.1186/1479-5868-9-122 Davis, 2011, Exercise improves executive function and achievement and alters brain activation in overweight children: a randomized, controlled trial, Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 30, 91, 10.1037/a0021766 Day, 2005, Defining stress as a prelude to mapping its neurocircuitry: no help from allostasis, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 29, 1195, 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.08.005 Debette, 2010, Visceral fat is associated with lower brain volume in healthy middle-aged adults, Annals of Neurology, 68, 136 Dery, 2013, Adult hippocampal neurogenesis reduces memory interference in humans: opposing effects of aerobic exercise and depression, Frontiers in Neuroscience, 7, 66 Ding, 2006, Cerebral angiogenesis and expression of angiogenic factors in aging rats after exercise, Current Neurovascular Research, 3, 15, 10.2174/156720206775541787 Ding, 2006, Insulin-like growth factor I interfaces with brain-derived neurotrophic factor-mediated synaptic plasticity to modulate aspects of exercise-induced cognitive function, Neuroscience, 140, 823, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.02.084 Droste, 2003, Effects of long-term voluntary exercise on the mouse hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, Endocrinology, 144, 3012, 10.1210/en.2003-0097 Droste, 2007, Voluntary exercise impacts on the rat hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis mainly at the adrenal level, Neuroendocrinology, 86, 26, 10.1159/000104770 Dunstan, 2012, Too much sitting–a health hazard, Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 97, 368, 10.1016/j.diabres.2012.05.020 Dunstan, 2012, Breaking up prolonged sitting reduces postprandial glucose and insulin responses, Diabetes Care, 35, 976, 10.2337/dc11-1931 Dunstan, 2011, Prolonged sitting: is it a distinct coronary heart disease risk factor?, Current Opinion in Cardiology, 26, 412, 10.1097/HCO.0b013e3283496605 Dustman, 1990, Age and fitness effects on EEG, ERPs, visual sensitivity, and cognition, Neurobiology of Aging, 10.1016/0197-4580(90)90545-B Dustman, 1984, Aerobic exercise training and improved neuropsychological function of older individuals, Neurobiology of Aging, 10.1016/0197-4580(84)90083-6 Duvivier, 2013, Minimal intensity physical activity (Standing and walking) of longer duration improves insulin action and plasma lipids more than shorter periods of moderate to vigorous exercise (cycling) in sedentary subjects when energy expenditure is comparable, PLoS ONE, 8, e55542, 10.1371/journal.pone.0055542 Eadie, 2005, Voluntary exercise alters the cytoarchitecture of the adult dentate gyrus by increasing cellular proliferation, dendritic complexity, and spine density, Journal of Comparative Neurology, 486, 39, 10.1002/cne.20493 Ebbeling, 2002, Childhood obesity: public-health crisis, common sense cure, The Lancet, 360, 473, 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09678-2 Emmanuel, 2013, Human hippocampal energy metabolism is impaired during cognitive activity in a lipid infusion model of insulin resistance, Brain and Behavior, 3, 134, 10.1002/brb3.124 Erickson, 2011, Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 3017, 10.1073/pnas.1015950108 Erickson, 2012, The aging hippocampus: interactions between exercise, depression, and BDNF, Neuroscientist, 18, 82, 10.1177/1073858410397054 Eriksson, 1998, Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus, Nature Medicine, 4, 1313, 10.1038/3305 Esliger, 2011, Validation of the GENEA Accelerometer, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43, 1085, 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31820513be Etnier, 2006, A meta-regression to examine the relationship between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance, Brain Research Reviews, 52, 119, 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.01.002 Evenson, 2012, Objective measurement of physical activity and sedentary behavior among US adults aged 60 years or older, Preventing Chronic Disease, 9, E26 Fabel, 2003, VEGF is necessary for exercise-induced adult hippocampal neurogenesis, European Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 2803, 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2003.03041.x Farmer, 2004, Effects of voluntary exercise on synaptic plasticity and gene expression in the dentate gyrus of adult male Sprague-Dawley rats in vivo, Neuroscience, 124, 71, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2003.09.029 Ferreira, 2013, Resting-state functional connectivity in normal brain aging, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37, 384, 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.01.017 Fjell, 2013, Brain changes in older adults at very low risk for Alzheimer's disease, Journal of Neuroscience, 33, 8237, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5506-12.2013 Fox, 2010 García-García, 2012, Alterations of the salience network in obesity: a resting-state fMRI study, Human Brain Mapping Ghasemi, 2013, Brain insulin dysregulation: implication for neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders, Molecular Neurobiology, 10.1007/s12035-013-8404-z Ghasemi, 2013, Insulin in the brain: sources, localization and functions, Molecular Neurobiology, 47, 145, 10.1007/s12035-012-8339-9 Goldberg, 2013 Goldman, 2011, Perivascular instruction of cell genesis and fate in the adult brain, Nature Neuroscience, 14, 1382, 10.1038/nn.2963 Gomez-Pinilla, 2008, Brain-derived neurotrophic factor functions as a metabotrophin to mediate the effects of exercise on cognition, The European Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 2278, 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06524.x Gorelick, 2010, Role of inflammation in cognitive impairment: results of observational epidemiological studies and clinical trials, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1207, 155, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05726.x Greicius, 2004, Default-mode network activity distinguishes Alzheimer's disease from healthy aging: evidence from functional MRI, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 4637, 10.1073/pnas.0308627101 Grontved, 2011, Television viewing and risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis, Journal of the American Medical Association, 305, 2448, 10.1001/jama.2011.812 Hagstromer, 2007, Physical activity and inactivity in an adult population assessed by accelerometry, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, 1502, 10.1249/mss.0b013e3180a76de5 Hâkansson, 1998, Leptin receptor immunoreactivity in chemically defined target neurons of the hypothalamus, The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 18, 559, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-01-00559.1998 Ham, 2009, Participation by US adults in sports, exercise, and recreational physical activities, Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 6, 6, 10.1123/jpah.6.1.6 Hamburg, 2007, Physical inactivity rapidly induces insulin resistance and microvascular dysfunction in healthy volunteers, Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 27, 2650, 10.1161/ATVBAHA.107.153288 Hamer, 2013, Television viewing, C-reactive protein, and depressive symptoms in older adults, Brain, Behavior and Immunity, 1 Hamilton, 2001, Plasma triglyceride metabolism in humans and rats during aging and physical inactivity, International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 11, S97, 10.1123/ijsnem.11.s1.s97 Hamilton, 2007, Role of low energy expenditure and sitting in obesity, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, Diabetes, 56, 2655, 10.2337/db07-0882 Hawley, 2004, Exercise as a therapeutic intervention for the prevention and treatment of insulin resistance, Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews, 20, 383, 10.1002/dmrr.505 Hayes, 2013, A review of cardiorespiratory fitness-related neuroplasticity in the aging brain, Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 5, 1 Healy, 2011, Measurement of adults' sedentary time in population-based studies, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 41, 216, 10.1016/j.amepre.2011.05.005 Healy, 2008, Breaks in sedentary time: beneficial associations with metabolic risk, Diabetes Care, 31, 661, 10.2337/dc07-2046 Healy, 2011, Sedentary time and cardio-metabolic biomarkers in US adults: NHANES 2003-06, European Heart Journal, 32, 590, 10.1093/eurheartj/ehq451 Helmerhorst, 2009, Objectively measured sedentary time may predict insulin resistance independent of moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity, Diabetes, 58, 1776, 10.2337/db08-1773 Heo, 2010, Resting hippocampal blood flow, spatial memory and aging, Brain Research, 1315, 119, 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.12.020 Herting, 2012, Aerobic fitness relates to learning on a virtual Morris Water Task and hippocampal volume in adolescents, Behavioural Brain Research, 233, 517, 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.05.012 Hertzog, 2009, Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9, 1, 10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01034.x Hillman, 2005, Aerobic fitness and neurocognitive function in healthy preadolescent children, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37, 1967, 10.1249/01.mss.0000176680.79702.ce Hillman, 2008, Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 58, 10.1038/nrn2298 Hillman, 2009, The effect of acute treadmill walking on cognitive control and academic achievement in preadolescent children, Neuroscience, 159, 1044, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.01.057 Holden, 2012, Spatial pattern separation in cognitively normal young and older adults, Hippocampus, 22, 1826, 10.1002/hipo.22017 Hurd, 2013, Monetary costs of dementia in the United States, The New England Journal of Medicine, 368, 1326, 10.1056/NEJMsa1204629 Isaac, 2011, Adverse associations between visceral adiposity, brain structure, and cognitive performance in healthy elderly, Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 3, 1 Jefferson, 2007, Inflammatory biomarkers are associated with total brain volume: the Framingham Heart Study, Neurology, 68, 1032, 10.1212/01.wnl.0000257815.20548.df Jette, 1990, Metabolic equivalents (METS) in exercise testing, exercise prescription, and evaluation of functional capacity, Clinical Cardiology, 13, 555, 10.1002/clc.4960130809 Johnson, 2012, Cardiorespiratory fitness is positively correlated with cerebral white matter integrity in healthy seniors, Neuroimage, 59, 1514, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.08.032 Katzmarzyk, 2010, Physical activity, sedentary behavior, and health: paradigm paralysis or paradigm shift?, Diabetes, 59, 2717, 10.2337/db10-0822 Katzmarzyk, 2009, Sitting time and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 41, 998, 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181930355 Kay, 2006, The influence of physical activity on abdominal fat: a systematic review of the literature, Obesity Reviews, 7, 183, 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2006.00250.x Knight, 2010, Hyperleptinemia is required for the development of leptin resistance, PLoS ONE, 5, e11376, 10.1371/journal.pone.0011376 Kojda, 2005, Molecular mechanisms of vascular adaptations to exercise. Physical activity as an effective antioxidant therapy?, Cardiovascular Research, 67, 187, 10.1016/j.cardiores.2005.04.032 Krabbe, 2007, Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and type 2 diabetes, Diabetologia, 50, 431, 10.1007/s00125-006-0537-4 Kramer, 1999, Ageing, fitness and neurocognitive function, Nature, 400, 418, 10.1038/22682 Kuhn, 1996, Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the adult rat: age-related decrease of neuronal progenitor proliferation, Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 2027, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.16-06-02027.1996 Kump, 2005, Sustained rise in triacylglycerol synthesis and increased epididymal fat mass when rats cease voluntary wheel running, The Journal of Physiology, 565, 911, 10.1113/jphysiol.2005.084525 Kump, 2006, Increased mitochondrial glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase protein and enzyme activity in rat epididymal fat upon cessation of wheel running, AJP: Endocrinology and Metabolism, 290, E480 Kyrou, 2006, Stress, visceral obesity, and metabolic complications, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1083, 77, 10.1196/annals.1367.008 Kyrou, 2009, Stress hormones: physiological stress and regulation of metabolism, Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 9, 787, 10.1016/j.coph.2009.08.007 Larsen, 2013, Associations of physical activity and sedentary behavior with regional fat deposition, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 1 Latouche, 2013, Effects of breaking up prolonged sitting on skeletal muscle gene expression, Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, MD: 1985), 114, 453, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00978.2012 Lautenschlager, 2013, Journal of American Medical Association Internal Medicine, 1 Laye, 2006, Inactivity induces increases in abdominal fat, Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, MD: 1985), 102, 1341, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00978.2012 Lees, 2004, Sedentary death syndrome, Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology = Revue canadienne de physiologie appliquée, 29, 447, 10.1139/h04-029 Levine, 2002, Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), Best Practice and Research. Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 16, 679, 10.1152/japplphysiol.01018.2006 Lipnicki, 2009, Physical inactivity and cognitive functioning: results from bed rest studies, European Journal of Applied Physiology, 105, 27, 10.1007/s00421-008-0869-5 Lipnicki, 2009, Bed rest and cognition: effects on executive functioning and reaction time, Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 80, 1018, 10.3357/ASEM.2581.2009 Lipnicki, 2009, Decision making after 50 days of simulated weightlessness, Brain Research, 1280, 84, 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.05.022 Lledo, 2006, Adult neurogenesis and functional plasticity in neuronal circuits, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 179, 10.1038/nrn1867 Lopez-Lopez, 2004, Insulin-like growth factor I is required for vessel remodeling in the adult brain, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 9833, 10.1073/pnas.0400337101 Martin, 2010, “Control” laboratory rodents are metabolically morbid: why it matters, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 6127, 10.1073/pnas.0912955107 Matthews, 2009, Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is produced by skeletal muscle cells in response to contraction and enhances fat oxidation via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase, Diabetologia, 52, 1409, 10.1007/s00125-009-1364-1 Matthews, 2008, Amount of time spent in sedentary behaviors in the United States, 2003–2004, American Journal of Epidemiology, 167, 875, 10.1093/aje/kwm390 McCrady, 2009, Sedentariness at work: how much do we really sit?, Obesity (Silver Spring), 17, 2103, 10.1038/oby.2009.117 McEwen, 2003, The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine, Hormones and Behavior, 43, 2, 10.1016/S0018-506X(02)00024-7 Messier, 2005, The role of insulin, insulin growth factor, and insulin-degrading enzyme in brain aging and Alzheimer's disease, Neural Plasticity, 12, 311, 10.1155/NP.2005.311 Middleton, 2011, Activity energy expenditure and incident cognitive impairment in older adults, Archives of Internal Medicine, 171, 1251, 10.1001/archinternmed.2011.277 Miyake, 2000, The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis, Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49, 10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 de la Monte, 2009, Insulin resistance and Alzheimer's disease, BMB Reports, 42, 475, 10.5483/BMBRep.2009.42.8.475 Monti, 2012, Aerobic fitness enhances relational memory in preadolescent children: the FITKids randomized control trial, Hippocampus, 22, 1876, 10.1002/hipo.22023 Morimoto, 1996, Distribution of glucocorticoid receptor immunoreactivity and mRNA in the rat brain: an immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization study, Neuroscience Research, 26, 235, 10.1016/S0168-0102(96)01105-4 Moult, 2010, Leptin regulates AMPA receptor trafficking via PTEN inhibition, Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 4088, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3614-09.2010 Murphy, 2011, Robustly measuring vascular reactivity differences with breath-hold: normalising stimulus-evoked and resting state BOLD fMRI data, Neuroimage, 54, 369, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.059 Nelson, 2006, Longitudinal and secular trends in physical activity and sedentary behavior during adolescence, Pediatrics, 118, e1627, 10.1542/peds.2006-0926 Network Sedentary Behaviour Research, 2013, Letter to the Editor: standardized use of the terms “sedentary” and “sedentary behaviours”, Mental Health and Physical Activity, 6, 55, 10.1016/j.mhpa.2012.06.001 Ng, 2012, Time use and physical activity: a shift away from movement across the globe, Obesity Reviews, 13, 659, 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00982.x Ogden, 2012, Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among US children and adolescents, 1999–2010, Journal of the American Medical Association, 307, 483, 10.1001/jama.2012.40 Ogoh, 2009, Regulatory mechanisms of cerebral blood flow during exercise: new concepts, Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 37, 123, 10.1097/JES.0b013e3181aa64d7 Ohkawara, 2007, A dose-response relation between aerobic exercise and visceral fat reduction: systematic review of clinical trials, International Journal of Obesity, 31, 1786, 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803683 Pate, 2008, The evolving definition of “sedentary”, Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 36, 173, 10.1097/JES.0b013e3181877d1a Peddie, 2013, Breaking prolonged sitting reduces postprandial glycemia in healthy, normal-weight adults: a randomized crossover trial, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 98, 358, 10.3945/ajcn.112.051763 Pedersen, 2009, The diseasome of physical inactivity–and the role of myokines in muscle–fat cross talk, Journal of Physiology, 587, 5559, 10.1113/jphysiol.2009.179515 Pedersen, 2012, Muscles, exercise and obesity: skeletal muscle as a secretory organ, Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 8, 457, 10.1038/nrendo.2012.49 Pereira, 2007, An in vivo correlate of exercise-induced neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 5638, 10.1073/pnas.0611721104 Petersen, 2005, The anti-inflammatory effect of exercise, Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, MD: 1985), 98, 1154, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00164.2004 Polich, 1995, Cognitive and biological determinants of P300: an integrative review, Biological Psychology, 41, 103, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00164.2004 van Praag, 1999, Running enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 96, 13427, 10.1073/pnas.96.23.13427 van Praag, 1999, Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus, Nature Neuroscience, 2, 266, 10.1038/6368 van Praag, 2002, Functional neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus, Nature, 415, 1030, 10.1038/4151030a Raz, 2005, Regional brain changes in aging healthy adults: general trends, individual differences and modifiers, Cerebral Cortex, 15, 1676, 10.1093/cercor/bhi044 Redila, 2006, Exercise-induced changes in dendritic structure and complexity in the adult hippocampal dentate gyrus, Neuroscience, 137, 1299, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.10.050 Reuter-Lorenz, 2010, Human neuroscience and the aging mind: a new look at old problems, Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65, 405, 10.1093/geronb/gbq035 Ridderinkhof, 2004, Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: the role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning, Brain and Cognition, 56, 129, 10.1016/j.bandc.2004.09.016 Rothman, 2009, Adverse stress, hippocampal networks, and Alzheimer's disease, Neuromolecular Medicine, 12, 56, 10.1007/s12017-009-8107-9 Sandhu, 2002, Circulating concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-I and development of glucose intolerance: a prospective observational study, Lancet, 359, 1740, 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08655-5 Schinder, 2000, The neurotrophin hypothesis for synaptic plasticity, Trends in Neurosciences, 23, 639, 10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01672-6 Schmidt, 2002, Early inflammation and dementia: a 25-year follow-up of the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study, Annals of Neurology, 52, 168, 10.1002/ana.10265 Scisco, 2008, Cardiovascular fitness and executive control during task-switching: an ERP study, International Journal of Psychophysiology: Official Journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology, 69, 52, 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.02.009 Seeley, 2007, Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control, Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 2349, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5587-06.2007 Shanley, 2001, Leptin enhances NMDA receptor function and modulates hippocampal synaptic plasticity, Journal of Neuroscience, 21, RC186, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-24-j0001.2001 Shields, 2008, Sedentary behaviour and obesity, Health Reports, 19, 19 Shiffman, 2008, Ecological momentary assessment, Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 1, 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091415 Shiroma, 2010, Physical activity and cardiovascular health: lessons learned from epidemiological studies across age, gender, and race/ethnicity, Circulation, 122, 743, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.914721 Shizgal, 2012, Homeostasis, motivation, and addictive states: energy stores are precisely regulated Sibley, 2007, Exercise and working memory: an individual differences investigation, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 29, 783, 10.1123/jsep.29.6.783 Sibley, 2003, The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta-analysis, Pediatric Exercise Science, 15, 243, 10.1123/pes.15.3.243 Smith, 2012, Physical activity, vascular health, and cognitive impairment, Archives of Internal Medicine, 172, 10.1001/archinternmed.2011.615 Smith, 2010, Aerobic exercise and neurocognitive performance: a meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials, Psychosomatic Medicine, 72, 239, 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181d14633 Smith, 2012, Regional cerebral blood flow distribution during exercise: Influence of oxygen, Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology, 184, 97, 10.1016/j.resp.2012.07.014 Snyder, 2011, Adult hippocampal neurogenesis buffers stress responses and depressive behaviour, Nature, 476, 458, 10.1038/nature10287 Sowell, 2003, Mapping cortical change across the human life span, Nature Neuroscience, 6, 309, 10.1038/nn1008 Stein, 2013, Sitting time, but not level of physical activity, is associated with depression in methadone-maintained smokers, Mental Health and Physical Activity, 6, 43, 10.1016/j.mhpa.2013.02.001 Stephens, 2011, Effects of 1 day of inactivity on insulin action in healthy men and women: interaction with energy intake, Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 60, 941, 10.1016/j.metabol.2010.08.014 Stranahan, 2008, Diabetes impairs hippocampal function through glucocorticoid-mediated effects on new and mature neurons, Nature Neuroscience, 11, 309, 10.1038/nn2055 Stranahan, 2006, Social isolation delays the positive effects of running on adult neurogenesis, Nature Neuroscience, 9, 526, 10.1038/nn1668 Stranahan, 2008, Central mechanisms of HPA axis regulation by voluntary exercise, Neuromolecular Medicine, 10, 118, 10.1007/s12017-008-8027-0 Stranahan, 2008, Impact of energy intake and expenditure on neuronal plasticity, Neuromolecular Medicine, 10, 209, 10.1007/s12017-008-8043-0 Stranahan, 2011, Bidirectional metabolic regulation of neurocognitive function, Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 96, 507, 10.1016/j.nlm.2011.01.004 Stranahan, 2012, Metabolic reserve as a determinant of cognitive aging, Journal of Alzheimer's Disease: JAD, 30, S5, 10.3233/JAD-2011-110899 Stroth, 2009, Aerobic endurance exercise benefits memory and affect in young adults, Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 19, 223, 10.1080/09602010802091183 Suvorava, 2004, Physical inactivity causes endothelial dysfunction in healthy young mice, Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 44, 1320, 10.1016/j.jacc.2004.06.030 Szostak, 2011, The forgotten face of regular physical exercise: a ‘natural’ anti-atherogenic activity, Clinical Science, 121, 91, 10.1042/CS20100520 Teixeira de Lemos, 2012, Regular physical exercise as a strategy to improve antioxidant and anti-inflammatory status: benefits in type 2 diabetes mellitus, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2012, 1, 10.1155/2012/741545 Themanson, 2006, Cardiorespiratory fitness and acute aerobic exercise effects on neuroelectric and behavioral measures of action monitoring, Neuroscience, 141, 757, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.04.004 Thomas, 2012, The effects of aerobic activity on brain structure, Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 86, 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00086 Thorp, 2011, Sedentary behaviors and subsequent health outcomes in adults a systematic review of longitudinal studies, 1996–2011, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 41, 207, 10.1016/j.amepre.2011.05.004 Trejo, 2001, Circulating insulin-like growth factor I mediates exercise-induced increases in the number of new neurons in the adult hippocampus, Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 1628, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-05-01628.2001 Tremblay, 2012, Letter to the Editor: standardized use of the terms “sedentary” and “sedentary behaviours”, Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 37, 540, 10.1139/h2012-124 Troiano, 2008, Physical activity in the United States measured by accelerometer, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40, 181, 10.1249/mss.0b013e31815a51b3 Van der Borght, 2009, Physical exercise leads to rapid adaptations in hippocampal vasculature: temporal dynamics and relationship to cell proliferation and neurogenesis, Hippocampus, 19, 928, 10.1002/hipo.20545 Vaynman, 2006, Revenge of the “Sit”: how lifestyle impacts neuronal and cognitive health through molecular systems that interface energy metabolism with neuronal plasticity, Journal of Neuroscience Research, 84, 699, 10.1002/jnr.20979 Vaynman, 2004, Hippocampal BDNF mediates the efficacy of exercise on synaptic plasticity and cognition, The European Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 2580, 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03720.x Voss, 2011, Aerobic fitness is associated with greater efficiency of the network underlying cognitive control in preadolescent children, Neuroscience, 199, 166, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.10.009 Voss, 2013, Neurobiological markers of exercise-related brain plasticity in older adults, Brain, Behavior and Immunity, 28, 90, 10.1016/j.bbi.2012.10.021 Voss, 2012, The influence of aerobic fitness on cerebral white matter integrity and cognitive function in older adults: results of a one-year exercise intervention, Human Brain Mapping Voss, 2011, Exercise, brain, and cognition across the life span, Journal of Applied Physiology, 111, 1505, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00210.2011 Voss, 2010, Plasticity of brain networks in a randomized intervention trial of exercise training in older adults, Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 2 Waldstein, 2006, Interactive relations of central versus total obesity and blood pressure to cognitive function, International Journal of Obesity, 30, 201, 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803114 Walhovd, 2011, Consistent neuroanatomical age-related volume differences across multiple samples, Neurobiology of Aging, 32, 916, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2009.05.013 Walsh, 2011, Position statement. Part one: Immune function and exercise, Exercise Immunology Review, 17, 6 Wang, 2011, Deficiency of lipoprotein lipase in neurons modifies the regulation of energy balance and leads to obesity, Cell Metabolism, 13, 105, 10.1016/j.cmet.2010.12.006 Wang, 2009, Lipoprotein lipase: from gene to obesity, AJP: Endocrinology and Metabolism, 297, E271 Wen, 2011, Minimum amount of physical activity for reduced mortality and extended life expectancy: a prospective cohort study, Lancet, S0140-6736, 1244, 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60749-6 Whitmer, 2008, Central obesity and increased risk of dementia more than three decades later, Neurology, 71, 1057, 10.1212/01.wnl.0000306313.89165.ef Williamson, 2012, Insulin resistance in the brain: an old-age or new-age problem?, Biochemical Pharmacology, 84, 737, 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.05.007 Wilson, 2002, Individual differences in rates of change in cognitive abilities of older persons, Psychology and Aging, 17, 179, 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.179 de Wit, 2011, Are sedentary television watching and computer use behaviors associated with anxiety and depressive disorders?, Psychiatry Research, 186, 239, 10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.003 Wolf, 2007, Relation of obesity to cognitive function: importance of central obesity and synergistic influence of concomitant hypertension. The Framingham Heart Study, Current Alzheimer Research, 4, 111, 10.2174/156720507780362263 Xian, 2009, Presynaptic defects underlying impaired learning and memory function in lipoprotein lipase-deficient mice, Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 4681, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0297-09.2009 Xu, 2010, Accelerated progression from mild cognitive impairment to dementia in people with diabetes, Diabetes, 59, 2928, 10.2337/db10-0539 Yaffe, 2003, Inflammatory markers and cognition in well-functioning African–American and white elders, Neurology, 61, 76, 10.1212/01.WNL.0000073620.42047.D7 Yassa, 2011, Pattern separation in the hippocampus, Trends in Neurosciences, 34, 515, 10.1016/j.tins.2011.06.006 Yates, 2012, Self-reported sitting time and markers of inflammation, insulin resistance, and adiposity, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42, 1, 10.1016/j.amepre.2011.09.022 Yeung, 2004, The neural basis of error detection: conflict monitoring and the error-related negativity, Psychological Review, 111, 931, 10.1037/0033-295X.111.4.931 Zhang, 2000, VEGF enhances angiogenesis and promotes blood-brain barrier leakage in the ischemic brain, The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 106, 829, 10.1172/JCI9369 Zhao, 2008, Mechanisms and functional implications of adult neurogenesis, Cell, 132, 645, 10.1016/j.cell.2008.01.033 Zuj, 2012, Impaired cerebrovascular autoregulation and reduced CO2 reactivity after long duration spaceflight, AJP: Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 302, H2592