Restoring Berlin's Unter den Linden: ideology, world view, place and space

Atkinson, 1998, Urban rhetoric and embodied identities: city, nation, and empire at the Vittorio Emanuele II monument in Rome, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 88, 28, 10.1111/1467-8306.00083 Azaryahu, 1997, German reunification and the politics of street names: the case of East Berlin, Political Geography, 16, 479, 10.1016/S0962-6298(96)00053-4 Bell, 1999, Redefining national identity in Uzbekistan: symbolic tensions in Tashkent's official public landscape, Ecumene, 6, 183, 10.1191/096746099701556169 Light, 2004, Street names in Bucharest, 1990–1997: exploring the modern historical geographies of post-socialist change, Journal of Historical Geography, 30, 154, 10.1016/S0305-7488(02)00102-0 S. Daniels, Fields of Vision: Landscape Imagery and National Identity in England and the United States, Oxford, 1993; Foote, 2000, Hungary after 1989: inscribing a new past on place, Geographical Review, 90, 301, 10.2307/3250856 Johnson, 2000, Cast in stone: monuments, geography, and nationalism, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 13, 51, 10.1068/d130051 D. Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country, Cambridge and New York, 1985; Sidorov, 2000, National monumentalization and the politics of scale: the resurrection of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow, Annals of Association of American Geographers, 90, 548, 10.1111/0004-5608.00208 Foote, Tóth and Árvay, Hungary after 1989: inscribing a new past on place, 306. The following is a selection of literature in these areas: G. Hartman (Ed.), Holocaust Remembrance: The Shapes of Memory, Oxford, 1994; S. Helmer, Hitler's Berlin: The Speer Plans for Reshaping the Central City, Ann Arbor, MI, 1985; C. Koonz, Between memory and oblivion: concentration camps in German memory, in: J. Gillis (Ed.), Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, Princeton, 1994, 258–280; B. Lane, Architecture and Politics in Germany, 1918–1945, Cambridge, MA, 1968; B. Ladd, The Ghosts of Berlin: Confronting German History in the Urban Landscape, Chicago, 1997; Pugvogel and M. Stankowski, Gedenkstätten für die Opfer des Nationalsozialismus: Eine Dokumentation, Bonn, 1995; R. Taylor, The Word in Stone: The Role of Architecture in National Socialist Ideology, Berkeley, 1974; J. Young, The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning, New Haven, 1993. See M. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor: Ein deustches Symbol, Berlin, 1999; L. Demps, Berlin-Wilhelmstrasse: Eine Topographie preussisch-deutscher Macht, Berlin, 1996; W. Durth, J. Düwel and N. Gutschow, Ostkreuz: Personen, Plänen und Perspektiven, Vol. 1, Architectur und Städtebau in der DDR, Frankfurt/New York, 1998; W. Durth, J. Düwel and N. Gutschow, Aufbau: Städte, Themen, Dokumente, Vol. 2, Architektur und Städtebau in der DDR, Frankfurt/New York, 1998; B. Flierl, Gebaute DDR: Über Stadtplaner, Architekten und die Macht, Berlin, 1998; S. Hain, ‘Reise nach Moskau’, Berlin, 1995; R. Müller, Das Berliner Zeughaus: Die Baugeschichte, Berlin, 1994; H. Nicolaus and A. Obeth, Die Stalinallee: Geschichte einer deutschen Strasse, Berlin, 1997; R. Petras, Das Schloss in Berlin: Von der Revolution 1918 bis zur Vernichtung 1950, Berlin, 1999; C. Stölzl, Die Neue Wache Unter den Linden: Ein Deutsches Denkmal in Wandel der Geschichte, Berlin, 1993. Till, 1999, Staging the past: landscape designs, cultural identity and Erinnerungspolitik at Berlin's Neue Wache, Ecumene, 6, 251, 10.1191/096746099701556277 R. Koshar, Germany's Transient Pasts: Preservation and National Memory in the Twentieth Century, Chapel Hill and London, 1998. A. Hillgruber, Deutsche Geschichte 1945–1986: Die ‘deutsche Frage’ in der Weltpolitik, Stuttgart, 1983. G. Kotowski, Geschichte Berlins seit dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, in: G. Langguth (Ed.), Berlin vom Brennpunkt der Teilung zur Brücke der Einheit, Cologne, 1990, 48–69. See Hillgruber, Langguth and C. Klessmann, Die doppelte Staatsgründung: Deutsche Geschichte 1945–1955, Bonn, 1991; H. Lehmann, Deutschland-Chronik 1945 bis 1995, Bonn, 1995. Paulick, 1952, Die künstlerische Probleme des Wiederaufbaues der Deutschen Staatsoper Unter den Linden, Deutsche Architektur, 1, 36 Though the palace was ultimately demolished, its treatment in the post-war era parallels that of the historic buildings on Unter den Linden. In the immediate post-war years, German communists directly confronted and obstructed attempts by planners and preservationists to obtain minimal funding for provisional repairs to the structure. The SMAD intervened in 1947 to renovate a portion of the building as office and exhibition space. The course of the palace radically diverged from Unter den Linden after the founding of the GDR, when Ulbricht declared the building a ruin and ordered its demolition, ignoring the socialist-realist imperative of preserving national cultural heritage and the objections of other communists officials, in order to create a large square in the ‘political center’ of the city for state-run parades. Although the need for such a space is indicated in socialist-realist theory, it could have been established without demolishing the palace. See P. Stangl, East Berlin 1945–1961: ideology, politics, identity and the urban landscape, Ph.D. diss., Austin, 2001, 339–391. Minerwin, 1953, Die Leninistische Theorie der Wiederspiegelung und die Fragen der Theorie der sozialistische Realismus, Deutsche Architektur, 4, 198 According to Marxist–Leninism, capitalist nations suffer from severe internal class conflicts and relate to each other in competitive, combative and oppressive ways. Socialist nations would increasingly overcome internal discord and relate to each other according to the principles of proletarian internationalism. The transition into communism, would result in the emergence of an international community of socialist nations with equal rights. Only under communism, would the increasing rapproachment of nations, in the long-term, lead to their fusion in a gradual process. Attempts to force this transformation would be counter-productive, thus for the post-war era in Eastern Europe, a complimentary existence of nationalism and internationalism was in order, with precedence given to the former; W. Böhme et al., Kleines politisches Wörterbuch, Berlin, 1978, 597–603. Liebknecht, 1952, Deutsche Architektur, Deutsche Architektur, 1, 46 Münter and Flierl to Kurt Liebknecht, President of Deutsche Bauakademie, 27 April 1954, Stiftung Archiv der Parteien und Massenorganizationen der DDR im Bundesarchiv (hereafter SAPMO-BA), DH2(IV)I/22, Berlin. Hain, Reise nach Moskau, 9–10. L. Bolz, Notes from consultation with Otto Grohtewohl, SAPMO-BA, DH1/44475. Politburo der Zentralkomitees der Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (hereafter Politburo), Plan des Neuaufbaus von Berlin, 15 August 1950, reprinted in Durth, Düwel and Gutschow, Vol. 2, 220–222. K. Brockenschmidt, Notes on meeting with Soviet Control Commission, 9 October 1950, SAPMO-BA, DH2 (K1) A/47. L. Bolz to Otto Grotewohl, Prime Minister of the GDR, 16 November 1950, SAPMO-BA, FBS, 123/16322. L. Bolz to Friedrich Ebert, Mayor of Berlin, 4 December 1950, SAPMO-BA, DH1, 39206. Planungskomission Berlin (hereafter PkB), 12 January 1951, Minutes from meeting, SAPMO-BA, DH1, 38927. Wettbewerb Zentrale Achse, 14 August 1951, reprinted in Durth, Düwel and Gutschow, Vol. 2, 231–233. H. Bodenschatz, H. Engstfeld and C. Seifert, Berlin: Auf der Suche nach dem verlorenem Zentrum, Hamburg, 1995, 126–127; For comparison with other examples of Renaissance urban design see A. Morris, History of Urban Form: Prehistory to Renaissance, London, 1972, 161–163. W. Volk, Historische Strassen und Plätze heute: Berlin, Haupstadt der DDR, Berlin, 1980, 9–11, 17; M. Wörner, D. Mollenschott and K. Hüter, Architekturführer Berlin, Berlin, 1997, 25. Stölzl, Die Neue Wache Unter den Linden, 17–20. Bodenschatz, Engstfeld and Seifert, Berlin, 133; Volk, Historische Strassen, 19–21. Bodenschatz, Engstfeld and Seifert, Berlin,. Volk, Historische Strassen, 32. Berlin Magistrat, Resolution, 7 July 1947, Landesarchiv Berlin (hereafter LAB), 100/793. G. Kiederling, Berlin 1945–1986: Geschichte der Hauptstadt der DDR, Berlin, 1987, 240–241. The Soviets wasted no time initiating their theater program. On May 14, 1945, General Besarin sent a group of German cultural elites on an excursion to survey the condition of Berlin's theaters and to register actors, singers, musicians, and technical personnel. Renovations were quickly underway on several theaters, and on September 24, 1945, the Berlin Magistrat passed a resolution for the restoration of a total of eight theaters for a sum of 1,140,000 Reichsmarks – at a time when obtaining several thousand Reichsmarks for historically valuable structures was problematic. These spaces also doubled as assembly halls for the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD) and related organizations. See Kiederling, 94; Schulze, File notes, 9 July 1945, LAB, 110/897; Berlin Magistrat, Hauptamt für Stadtplanung, Hauptampt für Hochbau, unsigned memorandum, 1 October 1945, LAB, 110/790; Berlin Magistrat, Hauptamt für Stadtplanung, Hauptampt für Hochbau, file note, 1 February 1946; Berlin Magistrat, Hauptamt für Stadtplanung, Hauptampt für Hochbau, report on visit to Metropol Theater, 26 July 1946, LAB, 110/790; A. Lampe et al., Berlin: Kampf um Freiheig und Selbstverwaltung, 1945–1946, Berlin, 1961, 355, 365, 375, 397, 404, 416. Politburo, Plan des Neuaufbaus von Berlin; W. Pisternik to Ministry of Education, 19 February 1951, SAPMO-BA, H1, 38615; PkB, Minutes from meeting, 18 September 1950, SAPMO-BA, DH1, 38927; PkB, Minutes from meeting, 23 October 1950, SAPMO-BA, DH1, 38927. K. Liebknecht, File notes, 28 June 1951, SAPMO-BA, H1, 44476; R. Paulick, 30. Liebknecht, 28 June 1951; C. Mayer, File note for Lothar Bolz, Minister of Building, 9 July 1951, SAPMO-BA, H1, 44476. Paulick, Die künstlerische Probleme, 30. Paulick, Die künstlerische Probleme, 32. Paulick, Die künstlerische Probleme, 32. W. Löschburg, Unter den Linden: Gesichter und Geschichten einer berühmten Strasse, Berlin, 1972, 65; M. Wörner, D. Mollenschott and K. Hüter, 24. Berlin Magistrat, 7 July 1947; Durth, Düwel and Gutschow, Ostkreuz, Vol. 1, 86. 1947, Neues Deutschland 1947, Berliner Zeitung 1950, Neues Deutschland Durth, Düwel and Gutschow, Vol. 1, 86. Kiederling, 240–241; see endnote 26. Stölzl, Die Neue Wache Unter den Linden, 10–21. Stölzl, Die Neue Wache Unter den Linden, 21–64. Stölzl, Die Neue Wache Unter den Linden, 75–78. Stölzl, Die Neue Wache Unter den Linden, 79; Politburo, 15 August 1950. PkB, Minutes from meeting, 25 August 1950, SAPMO-BA, DH1, 38927; PkB, Minutes from meeting, 7 September 1950, SAPMO-BA, DH1, 38927. Stölzl, Die Neue Wache Unter den Linden. Michealis to Rebetsky, 14 July 1951, SAPMO-BA, DH2 (K1) A/47. Walter Pisternik to Willi Stoph, Member of Central Committee of SED, 15 February 1951, SAPMO-BA, DH1, 39026. Michealis to Rebetsky, 14 July 1951, SAPMO-BA, DH2 (K1) A/47. Michealis to Rebetsky, 14 July 1951, SAPMO-BA, DH2 (K1) A/47. Ernst Hoffman to Walter Pisternik, 5 September 1951, SAPMO-BA, H1, 38881. Stölzl, Die Neue Wache Unter den Linden, 80–82. Politburo, Resolution, 15 December 1959, SAPMO-BA, DY 30/59. Politburo, Resolution, 15 December 1959, SAPMO-BA, DY 30/59. M. Azaryahu, Von Wilhelmplatz zu Thälmannplatz: Politische Symbole im öffentliche Leben der DDR, trans. K. Amrani and A. Mandelbaum, Germany, 1991, 135. Politburo, 15 December 1959. 1960, Berliner Zeitung 1960, Berliner Zeitung 1960, Berliner Zeitung Stölzl, Die Neue Wache Unter den Linden, 84–88. The function of the Neue Wache became a subject of renewed debate since German reunification. For an analysis of the negotiation of meaning regarding the Neue Wache during this era, see Till. Berlin Magistrat, Copy of excerpt from statement from 20 June 1911, LAB, 110/903. According to Katz, control of the Arsenal had been turned over to the Planning Department after he convinced “the allies” to change their plans to demolish the building in accordance with the Potsdam Conference policy that the most significant symbolic sites of Prussian–German militarism be destroyed. See Tägliche Rundschau (14 August 1947). In fact, the Allied Control Council did not approve any policy regarding the Arsenal until October, when it determined that its contents must be liquidated. (See Müller, 252.) Justi simply notes that the Planning Department “took” the building from his office and refused to return it. See Ludwig Justi to Karl Bonatz, 28 November 1947, LAB, 110/903. Given the Soviet interest in exhibition space, and the fact that the Magistrat was engaged in repairs to make the building habitable in summer 1945. See Berlin Magistrat, Hauptamt Stadtplanung, Kostenüberschlag über die notwendigen Baumassnahmen zur Beseitigung Zerstorungen an dem Gebäude des Zeughauses in Berlin, UdL 2, 12 August 1945, LAB, 110/903. Given the SMAD's complete control over the administration of Berlin at that time, it can only be presumed that it arranged for the building to pass to Katz control at that time. Müller, 250–251. Schwenk to Hauptamtes für Hochbau, 3 December 1945, LAB, 100/903. Berlin Magistrat, Note on Schwenk's report at meeting, 10 December 1945, LAB, 100/761; Listmann to division supervisor, 22 August 1946, LAB, 110/903; Müller, 251. Müller, 252. Berlin Magistrat, Hauptamt für Stadtplanung, unsigned memorandum, 6 February 1946, LAB, 110/903; Listmann to division supervisor; Scheper, Letter to division supervisor, Hauptamptes für Hochbau, 30 August 1946, LAB, 110/903. Berlin Magistrat, Finanzabteilung, file note, 30 November 1946, LAB, 110/903; Ferdinand Friedensburg, Notes from meeting on 15 July 1947, 16 July 1947, LAB, 110/903. See Ludwig Justi to Karl Bonatz, 28 November 1947, LAB, 110/903. Ferdinand Friedensburg, Notes from meeting on 15 July 1947, 16 July 1947, LAB, 110/903. 1947, Tägliche Rundschau Berlin Magistrat, Resolution, 8 September 1947, LAB, 100/797. Ferdinand Friedensburg, Notes from meeting on 18 November 1947, 20 November 1947, LAB, 100/803. R. Müller, Das Berliner Zeughaus: Die Baugeschichte, Berlin, 1994, 258. 1949, Sonntag Müller, Das Berliner Zeughaus, 260–262, 288. Müller, Das Berliner Zeughaus, 259. Müller, Das Berliner Zeughaus, 267–272. Ministerrat der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Auszug aus dem Protokoll der 38 Sitzung der Provisoriche Regierung der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik am 23.8.50, 25 August 1950, SAPMO-BA, H1, 44476. Ministerium für Aufbau, untitled document, undated, SAPMO-BA, DH1, 38927. K. Liebknecht, Memorandum on meeting with Walter Ulbricht, 4 September 1950, SAPMO-BA, DH1, 39827. C. Maier, The Unmasterable Past: History, Holocaust and German National Identity, Cambridge, MA, 1988, 124–125. W. Volk, Historische Strassen und Plätze heute: Berlin, Haupstadt der DDR, Berlin, 1980, 31–35. Volk, Historische Strassen und Plätze heute, 33; PkB, Minutes from meeting, 18 September 1950, SAPMO-BA, DH1, 38927. Volk, Historische Strassen und Plätze heute, 32. R. Paulick, Die künstlerische Probleme des Wiederaufbause der Deutschen Staatsoper Unter den Linden, Deutsche Architektur 1 (1952) 36. Paulick, Die künstlerische Probleme des Wiederaufbaues der Deutschen Staatsoper Unter den Linden, 35. Paulick, Die künstlerische Probleme des Wiederaufbaues der Deutschen Staatsoper Unter den Linden, 36. S. Schulz, Denkmäler im Stadtbild Berlins, in: E. Badstübner and H. Sachs (Eds), Denkmale in Berlin und in der Mark Brandenburg, Weimar, 1988, 96; Stölzl, 20. E. Badstübner and H. Sachs, Denkmale in Berlin und in der Mark Brandenburg, Weimar, 1988, 371. S. Schulz, Denkmäler im Stadtbild Berlins, in E. Badstübner and H. Sachs (Eds), Denkmale in Berlin und in der Mark Brandenburg, Weimar, 1988, 96–98. M. Azaryahu, Von Wilhelmplatz zu Thälmannplatz: Politische Symbole im öffentliche Leben der DDR, trans. K. Amrani and A. Mandelbaum, Germany, 1991, 132. Ministerium für Aufbau, Hauptampt Stadtplanung, Termin- und Kostenplan für die vorläufige Umgestaltung des Lustgartens, 19 August 1950, SAPMO-BA, DH1, 39075. Azaryahu, Von Wilhelmplatz zu Thälmannplatz, 142–143. M. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor: Ein deustches Symbol, Berlin, 1999, 13–16. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor, 39. H. Börsch-Supan, Forward in M. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor: Ein deustches Symbol, Berlin, 1999. J. March, Cassel Dictionary of Classical Mythology, London, 1998, 232; Cullen, 40. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor, 51. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor, 41–71, 75–82. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor, 93–94. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor, 85–91. Berlin Magistrat, Resolution, 12 November 1949, LAB, 100/843. Berlin Magistrat, File note, 5 April 1950, LAB, 100/843. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor, 90–93. Sekretariat des Oberbürgermeisters, File note, 10 February 1951, LAB, 100/843. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor, 94–96. Politburo, Resolution, 28 August 1956, SAPMO-BA, DY, 30/56. Cullen, 99; Cullen's assertion that the Beautification Plan was a response to West Berlin's IBA is substantiated by examining a copy of the plan published in Berliner Zeitung (28 August 1946): the focus was clearly on sites near border crossings and transportation nodes. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor, 99–104. Cullen, Das Brandenburger Tor, 103. Politburo, Resolution, 9 September 1958, SAPMO-BA, DY 30/58. 1958, Berliner Zeitung 1958, Berliner Zeitung