Resistance, essentialism, and empowerment in black nationalist discourse in the African Diaspora: A comparison of the back to Africa, black power, and rastafari movements
Tóm tắt
The mobilization of ethnicity entails the production of culture—a process involving the interweaving of culture, history and identity, and the manipulation of cultural symbols to reconstruct and reshape conceptions of self and community. The shifting character and salience of ethnicity as demonstrated in the Back to Africa, Black Power, and Rastafari movements point to the flexibility of culture and identity. In demonstrating the interrelationships among activism, identity and culture and their impact on the creation of new and revitalized ethno-racial identities in the African-Caribbean Diaspora, all three movements allowed their socially dispossessed and culturally displaced adherents to be active social actors and knowledgeable agents capable of making their own history. This paper takes issue with the black cultural nationalists’ deployment of a “race-culture” essentialist discourse to: (i) frame notions of difference vis-à-vis the Other; and (ii) “imagine” and homogenize blackness so as to produce ethno-racial solidarity in the minds of the disenfranchised.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Alleyne, M. (1988). Roots of Jamaican culture. London: Pluto Press.
Anderson, B. (1983). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. London: Verso.
Arendt, H. (1978). The Jew as pariah: Jewish identity and politics in the modern age. New York: Grove Press.
Barth, F. (1969). Ethnic groups and boundaries. Boston: Little Brown.
Bennett, H. (1993). The Black Power February revolution in Trinidad, in H. Beckles and V. Shepherd (Eds.). Caribbean freedom: Economy and society from emancipation to the present. Kingston, Jamaica: IRP.
Berger, P. and Luckmann, T. (1967). The social construction of reality: A treatise on the Sociology of knowledge. Garden City, NJ: Anchor Books.
Berlin, I. (1998). Many thousands gone: The first two centuries of slavery in North America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Blanck, D. (1989). Constructing an ethnic identity: The case of the Swedish Americans. In P. Kivisto (Ed.). Ethnic enigma: The salience of ethnicity for European-origin groups (pp. 134–152). Philadelphia: Balch Institute Press.
Braithwaite, K. (1974). The African presence in Caribbean literature. In S. Mintz (Ed.) Slavery, colonialism and racism (pp. 73–109). New York: Norton.
Brass, P. (1991). Ethnicity and nationalism: Theory and comparison. London: Sage.
Campbell, H. (1987). Rasta and resistance: From Marcus Garvey to Walter Rodney. New Jersey: African World Press.
Carmichael, S. (1967). Black Power: The politics of liberation in America. London: Cape.
Carnegie, C. (1999). Garvey and the Black transnation. Small Axe: A journal of criticism, 5, 48–71.
Caute, D. (1970). Frantz Fanon. New York: Viking.
Chevannes, B. (1998). Rastafari and the exorcism of the ideology of racism and classism in Jamaica. In N.S. Murrell Spencer et al., (Eds.). Chanting down Babylon: The Rastafari reader. Kingston: IRP.
___. (1995). Rastafari: Roots and ideology. Syracuse NY: Syracuse University Press.
___. (1989). Social and ideological origins of the Rastafari movement in Jamaica. (Doctoral dissertation. Columbia University, 1989).
Clarke, J.H. (1974). Marcus Garvey and the vision of Africa. New York: Vintage Books.
Clifford, J. (1994). Diasporas. Cultural Anthropology, 9(3), 302–338.
Cohen, A.P. (1985). The symbolic construction of community. New York: Tavistock.
Cornell, S. and Hartmann, D. (1998). Ethnicity and race: Making identities in a changing world. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
Craig, S. (1982). Background to the 1970 confrontation in Trinidad and Tobago. In S. Craig (Ed.). Contemporary Caribbean: A sociological reader (Vol. 2, pp. 385–423). Maracas, Trinidad: The College Press.
Cronon, D.E. (1955). Black Moses. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
DeCosmo, J. (2000). Pariah status, identity and creativity in Babylon: The functionality of utopian visions of “home” in the African Diaspora. Diaspora and Transnational Identities Conference. University of Western Ontario.
___. (1995). To set the captives free … Religion and revolution in Bob Marley’s music. International Journal of Comparative Race and Ethnic Studies, 2(2), 63–79.
___. (1994). The concept of “surplus population” and its relationship to Rastafari. In Depth: A Journal for Values and Public Policy, 4(1), 69–90.
Esman, M. (1986). Diasporas and international relations. In G. Shaffer (Ed.). Modern diasporas in international politics (pp. 333–49). London: Croom Helm.
Fanon, F. (1963). The wretched of the earth. New York: Grove.
Fantasia, R. (1988). Cultures of Solidarity. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Forsythe, D. (1980). West Indian culture through the prism of Rastafarianism. Caribbean Quarterly, 26, 4, 62–81.
___. (1971). Let the Niggers Burn. Montreal: Black Rose Books.
Gamson, W. (1988). Political discourse and collective action. In B. Klandermans, et al. (Eds.), International social movements research. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Gellner, E. (1964). Thought and change. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson.
Gilroy, P. (1993). The Black Atlantic: Modernity and double consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Girvan, N. (1975). Aspects of the political economy of race in the Caribbean. Working Paper Series, No. 7. Mona, Jamaica: ISER.
Gobineau, A. (1970). Essay on the inequality of the human races. In M.D. Biddis (Ed.). Gobineau: Selected political writing (pp. 37–176). New York: Harper and Row.
Hacking, I. (1999). The social construction of what? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hall, S. (1994). Cultural identity and Diaspora. In P. Williams and L. Chrisman (Eds.). Colonial discourse and post-colonial theory (pp. 392–408). New York: Columbia University Press.
Hannaford, I. (1996). Race: The history of an idea in the West. Washington, DC: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
Herrnstein, R. C. and Murray, C.A. (1994). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York: Free Press.
Holstein, J.A. and Miller, G. (1993). Perspectives on social problems: Reconsidering social constructionism. New York: Aldine.
Levitt, C. (1984). Children of privilege: Student revolts in the sixties. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Luborsky, M., and Rubenstein, R. (1987). Ethnicity and lifetimes: Self-concepts and situational contexts of ethnic identity in late life. In D. Gelfand and D. Barressi (Eds.). Ethnic Dimensions of Aging. New York: Springer.
MacDonald, N. (1990). The Caribbean: Making our own choices. England: Oxfam Report.
Malcolm X. (1970). By any means necessary. New York: Pathfinder Press.
Martin, T. (1993). Marcus Garvey, the Caribbean, and the struggle for Black Jamaica nationhood. In H. Beckles and V. Shepherd (Eds.). Caribbean freedom: Economy and society from emancipation to the present: A student reader. Kingston, Jamaica: IRP and James Currey.
McCartney, J. T. (1992). Black Power ideologies: An essay in African-American political thought. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Meyerowitz, E. (1958). The Akan of Ghana. London: Faber and Faber.
Millette, J. (1971). The Black Revolution in the Caribbean, Port-of-Spain. Trinidad: Moko Enterprise.
Moitt, B. (1989). Cheikh anta diop and the African Diaspora: Historical continuity and sociocultural symbolism. Presence Africaine, 149(50), 349–360.
Murrell, N.S., and Taylor, B.K. (1998). Rastafari’s messianic ideology and Caribbean theology of liberation. In N. S. Murrell, et al. (Eds.). Chanting down Babylon: The Rastafari reader. Kingston: Ian Randle Publisher.
Nagel, J. (1994). Constructing ethnicity: Creating and recreating ethnic identity and culture. Social Problems, 41(1), 152–176.
Okpewho, I. (1999). The African diaspora: African origins and New World identities. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Omi, M. and Winant, H. (1994). Racial formations in the United States from the 1960s to the 1990s. New York: Routledge.
Pasley, V. (1997). Black Power, gender ideology, cultural change and the beginning of feminist discourse in urban Trinidad in the 1970. Working Paper, No. 2. St. Augustine: Trinidad.
Ratray, R.S. (1923). Ashanti. London: Oxford University Press.
Reckford, V. (1977). Rastafari music: An introductory study. Jamaica Journal, 41(2), 3–13.
Robinson, D.E. (2001). Black nationalism in American politics and thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rodney, W. (1969). The groundings with my brothers. London: Bogle L’Overture.
Rushton, J.P. (1995). Race, evolution and behavior: A life history perspective. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Ryan, S. (1995). The struggle for Black Power in the Caribbean. In S. Ryan and T. Stewart (Eds.). The Black Power Revolution 1970: A Retrospective. St. Augustine: University of the West Indies Press.
Safran, W. (1991). Diasporas in modern societies: Myth of homeland and return. Diaspora, 1, 83–99.
Savishinsky, N. (1999). Transnational popular culture and the global spread of the Jamaican Rastafarian movement. In M. Klass and M. Weisgrau (Eds.). Across boundaries of beliefs: Contemporary issues in the Anthropology of religion (pp. 347–366). Boulder: Westview Press.
___. (1998). African dimensions of the Jamaican Rastafarian Movement. In Murrell, N.S. et al. (Eds.). Chanting down Babylon: The Rastafari reader. Kingston, Jamaica: IRP.
___. (1993). Rastafari in the promised land: The spread of a Jamaican socio-religious movement and its music and culture among the youth of Ghana and Senegambia. (Doctoral dissertation. Columbia University, 1993).
Scott, D. (1999). An obscure miracle of connection. In D. Scott (Ed.). Refashioning futures: Criticism after postcoloniality (pp. 106–127). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Semaj, L. (1980). Rastafari: From religion to social theory. Caribbean Quarterly, 26(4), 22–31.
Singh, S. (2003). Imagined communities: Articulating a return to mythical homelands in the African and Indian Diasporas. In H. Henke and F. Reno (Eds.). Modern political culture in the Caribbean (pp. 212–236). Barbados: University of the West Indies Press.
Smith, A. (1992). Chosen peoples: Why ethnic groups survive. Racial and Ethnic Studies, 15, 436–56.
Snow, D.A., et al. (1986). Frame alignment process, micro mobilization, and movement participation. American Sociological Review, 51, 464–481.
Tafari, J. (1985). The Rastafari: Successors of Marcus Garvey. Caribbean Quarterly, 26(4), 1–12.
Vincent, T. (1971). Black Power and the Garvey movement. Berkeley: Ramparts Press.
Voegelin, E. (1940). The growth of the race idea. Review of Politics 2(3), 283–317.
Watson, L. G. (1973). Social structure and social movements: The Black Muslims in the U.S. and the Rastafarians in Jamaica. British Journal of Sociology, 24(1), 188–204.
Weitz, E. (2003). A century of genocide: Utopias of race and nation. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.
———. (1988). Rasta mek a trod: Symbolic ambiguity in a Globalizing Religion. In T. Brenner, et al. (Eds.). Alternative cultures in the Caribbean. Berlin: Report of the First International Conference of the Society of Caribbean Research.
Yawney, C.D. (1978). Dread wasteland: Rastafarian ritual in West Kingston, Jamaica. In N. R. Crumrise (Ed.). Ritual symbolism and ceremonialism in the Americas: Studies in symbolic anthropology. Boulder: University of North Colorado.