Representative roughness parameters for homogeneous terrain

Boundary-Layer Meteorology - Tập 63 Số 4 - Trang 323-363 - 1993
Jon Wiernga1
1Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, De Bilt, Netherlands

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Agterberg, R. and Wieringa, J.: 1989, ?Mesoscale Terrain Roughness Mapping of the Netherlands?, Roy. Neth. Meterol. Inst. Tech. Rep. TR-115.

Anderson, D. E., Verma, S. B., Clement, R. J., Baldocchi, D. D. and Matt, D. R.: 1986, ?Turbulence Spectra of CO2, Water Vapor, Temperature and Velocity over a Deciduous Forest?,Agric. Forest Meteorol. 38, 81?99.

Andreopoulos, J. and Wood, D. H.: 1982, ?The Response of a Turbulent Boundary Layer to a Short Length of Surface Roughness?,J. Fluid Mech. 118, 143?164.

Angle, R. P.: 1975, ?Airflow from Mustard to Fallow?,Atmosphere 13, 110?125.

Anthes, R. A.: 1980, ?Boundary Layers in Numerical Weather Prediction?, Workshop on the Planetary Boundary Layer, Boulder 1978 (Publ.Am. Meteorol. Soc., Boston) pp. 247?277.

Arya, S. P. S.: 1975, ?A Drag Partition Theory for Determining the Large-Scale Roughness Parameter and Wind Stress on Arctic Pack Ice?,J. Geophys. Res. 80, 3447?3454.

Arya, S. P. S.: 1977, ?Suggested Revisions to Certain Boundary Layer Parameterization Schemes used in Atmospheric Circulation Models?,Mon. Weath. Rev. 105, 215?227.

Azevedo, P. V. and Verma, S. B.: 1986, ?Aerodynamic Characteristics of Grain Sorghum?,Agric Forest Meteorol. 38, 193?204.

Baldocchi, D. D., Verma, S. B. and Rosenberg, N. J.: 1983, ?Characteristics of Air Flow Above and Within Soybean Canopies?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 25, 43?54.

Baumgartner, A.: 1956, ?Untersuchungen über den Wärme- und Wasserhaushalt eines jungen Waldes?,Ber. Deutsch. Wetterd. 28.

Belitz, H. J., Kottmeier, C., Hartig, R. and Stuckenberg, H. U.: 1987, ?Zur aerodynamischen Rauhigkeit arktischer Meereisflächen?,Meteorol. Rundschau 40, 97?107.

Beljaars, A. C. M.: 1982, ?The Derivation of Fluxes from Profiles in Perturbed Areas?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 24, 35?55.

Beljaars, A. C. M.: 1987a, ?On the Memory of Wind Standard Deviation for Upstream Roughness?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 38, 95?101.

Beljaars, A. C. M.: 1987b, ?The Measurement of Gustiness at Routine Wind Stations ? A Review?,Roy. Neth. Meteorol. Inst. Sc. Rep. WR-87-11 (WMO Instr. Meth. Obs. Rep. 31).

Beljaars, A. C. M. and Holtslag, A. A. M.: 1991, ?On Flux Parameterization over Land Surfaces for Atmospheric Models?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 30, 327?341.

Bergen, J. D.: 1987, ?A Vertical Profile of Lateral and Longitudinal Turbulence over a Forest Stand?,Prepr. 18th Am. Meteorol. Soc. Conf. Agric. and Forest Meteorol (Lafayette) pp. 193?195.

Bergström, H. and Högström, U.: 1989, ?Turbulent Exchange above a Pine Forest, II: Organized Structures?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 49, 231?263.

Biétry, J., Sacré, C. and Simiu, E.: 1978 ?Mean Wind Profiles and Change of Terrain Roughness?,J. Struct. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Engin. 104, 1585?1593.

Blackadar, A. K., Panofsky, H. A., Glass, P. E. and Boogaard, J. F.: 1967, ?Determination of the Effect of Roughness Change on the Wind Profile?,Phys. Fluids 10, S209?211.

Blackadar, A. K. and Tennekes, H.: 1968, ?Asymptotic Similarity in Neutral Barotropic Boundary Layers?,J. Atmos. Sci. 25, 1015?1020.

Borisenko, M. M.: 1977, ?Razpredelenye wetraw nizhnem 200-metrowom sloye atmosfeery nad gorodom (Wind Distribution in the Lowest Atmospheric 200 m-Layer above a Town)?,Trudy Glav. Geofys. Obs. 368, Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad.

Bradley, E. F.: 1968, ?Micrometeorological Study of Velocity Profiles and Surface Drag in the Region Modified by a Change in Surface Roughness?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 94, 361?379.

Bradley, E. F.: 1971, ?The Influence of Thermal Stability on a Drag Coefficient Measured Close to the Ground?,Agric. Meteorol. 9, 183?190.

Brook, R. R.: 1972, ?Measurements of Turbulence in a City Environment?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 11, 443?450.

Brooks, F. A.: 1961, ?Need for Measuring Horizontal Gradients in Determining Vertical Eddy Transfers of Heat and Moisture?,J. Meteorol. 18, 589?596.

Brutsaert, W.: 1975a, ?Comments on Surface Roughness Parameters and the Height of Dense Vegetation?,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 53, 96?97.

Brutsaert, W.: 1975b, ?The Roughness Length for Water Vapor, Sensible Heat, and Other Scalars?,J. Atmos. Sci. 32, 2028?2031.

Busch, N. E. and Kristensen, L.: 1976, ?Cup Anemometer Overspeeding?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 15, 1328?1332.

Businger, J. A.: 1974, ?Aerodynamics of Vegetated Surfaces?,Proc. Sem. on Heat and Mass Transfer in the Environment of Vegetation (Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia) pp. 139?165, Scripta, Wash. D. C.

Carson, D. J.: 1986, ?Issues Concerning the Evaluation of Effective Surface Roughness of Heterogeneous Terrain?,Proc. ISLSCP Conf. Rome (ESA-SP-248) pp. 77?82.

Cats, G. J.: 1979, ?Wind Profile Estimates up to 200 m from Synoptic Observations?, Roy. Neth. Meteor. Inst. Techn. Rep. V-326.

Cermak, J. E. and Edling, W. H.: 1987, ?Three-Dimensional Turbulent Boundary Layer Along Roughness Strip?,Prepr. 7th Intern. Conf. Wind Engin. Aachen, Vol.1, 1?10.

Chamberlain, A. C.: 1983, ?Roughness Length of Sea, Sand and Snow?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 25, 405?409.

Charnock, H.: 1955, ?Wind Stress on a Water Surface?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 81, 639?640.

Chen Fazu and Schwerdtfeger, P.: 1989, ?Flux-Gradient Relationships for Momentum and Heat over a Rough Natural Surface?,Quart. J. Roy. Meterol. Soc. 115, 335?352.

Chen Fazu: 1990, ?Turbulent Characteristics over a Rough Natural Surface. I: Turbulent Structures; II: Responses of Profiles to Turbulence?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 52, 151?175 & 301?311.

Claussen, M.: 1990, ?Area Averaging of Surface Fluxes in a Neutrally Stratified, Horizontally Inhomogeneous Boundary Layer?,Atmos. Environ. 24A, 1349?1360.

Claussen, M.: 1991, ?Estimation of Areally-Averaged Surface Fluxes?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 54, 387?410.

Cook, N. J.: 1985, ?The Designer's Guide to Wind Loading of Building Structures. Part 1: Background, Damage Survey, Wind Data and Structural Classification?,Build. Res. Est. (Garston) Rep., Butterworths, U.K.

Counihan, J.: 1971, ?Wind Tunnel Determination of the Roughness Length as a Function of the Fetch and the Roughness Density of Three-Dimensional Roughness Elements?,Atmos. Environ. 5, 637?642.

Covey, W.: 1963, ?A Method for the Computation of Logarithmic Wind Profile Parameters and their Standard Errors?, In: E. R. Lemon (ed.),The Energy Budget at the Earth's Surface, Part II, Prod. Res. Rep. 72 U.S. Dept. Agric., Ithaca, N.Y., pp. 28?33.

Davenport, A. G.: 1960, ?Rationale for Determining Design Wind Velocities?,J. Struct. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Engin. 86, 39?68.

Deacon, E. L.: 1953, ?Vertical Profiles of the Mean Wind in the Surface Layers of the Atmosphere?,Meteorol. Off. Geophys. Mem. 91, H.M. Stationery Off., U.K.

Deacon, E. L.: 1979, ?The Role of Coral Mucus in Reducing the Wind Drag over Coral Reefs?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 17, 517?521.

De Bruin, H. A. R. and Moore, C. J.: 1985, ?Zero-Plane Displacement and Roughness Length for Tall Vegetation, Derived from a Simple Mass Conservation Hypothesis?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 31, 39?49.

Dobesch, H.: 1976, ?Der Rauhigkeitsparameter und die Dicke der Verdrängungsschicht für Wind über verschiedenen natürlichen Unterlagen?,Archiv Meteorol. Geophys. Bioklim. A 25, 125?130.

Dolman, A. J.: 1986, ?Estimates of Roughness Length and Zero Plane Displacement for a Foliated and Non-Foliated Oak Canopy?,Agric. Forest Meteorol. 36, 241?248.

Dubov, A. S. and Marunich, S. V.: 1973, ?Structure of the Air Flow Above Forested Areas?,Atmos. Oc. Phys. 9, 362?365.

Duchêne-Marullaz, P.: 1979, ?Effect of High Roughness on the Characteristics of Turbulence in Cases of Strong Winds,Prepr. 5th Internat. Conf. Wind Engin., Fort Collins, paper II-8, 15 pp.

Elliott, W. P.: 1958, ?The Growth of the Atmospheric Internal Boundary Layer?,Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 39, 1048?1054.

Emeis, S.: 1990, ?Pressure Drag of Obstacles in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 29, 461?476.

Fiedler, F. and Panofsky, H. A.: 1972, ?The Geostrophic Drag Coefficient and the ?Effective? Roughness Length?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 98, 213?220.

Foken, T. and Skeib, G.: 1980, ?Genauigkeit und Auswertung von Profilmessungen zur Energieaustauschbestimmung?,Z. Meteorol. 30, 346?360.

Ford, E. D.: 1976, ?The Canopy of a Scots Pine Forest: Description of a Surface of Complex Roughness?,Agric. Meteorol. 17, 9?32.

Gao, W., Shaw, R. H. and Paw U, K. T.: ?Observation of Organized Structure in Turbulent Flow within and above a Forest Canopy?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 47, 349?377.

Garratt, J. R.: 1975, ?Limitations of the Eddy-Correlation Technique for the Determination of Turbulent Fluxes Near the Surface?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 8, 255?259.

Garratt, J. R.: 1977a, ?Review of Drag Coefficients over Oceans and Continents?,Monthly Weath. Rev. 105, 915?929.

Garratt, J. R.: 1977b, ?Mean Monthly Stress and Aerodynamic Roughness over Australia?,CSIRO Div. Atmos. Phys. TP-29.

Garratt, J. R.: 1978, ?Flux Profile Relations above Tall Vegetation?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 104, 199?211.

Garratt, J. R.: 1980, ?Surface Influence Upon Vertical Profiles in the Atmospheric Near-Surface Layer?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 106, 803?819.

Garratt, J. R.: 1990, ?The Internal Boundary Layer ? A Review?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 50, 171?303.

Gartshore, I. S. and De Croos, K. A.: 1979, ?Equilibrium Boundary Layers over Very Rough Surfaces?, AGARD-CPP-271 (Fluid Dynam. Symp.) Paper 7.

Gash, J. H. C.: 1986, ?Observations of Turbulence Downwind of a Forest-Heath Interface?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 36, 227?237.

Gill, G. C., Olsson, L. E., Sela, J. and Suda, M.: 1967, ?Accuracy of Wind Measurements on Towers or Stacks?,Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 48, 665?674.

Gorham, E.: 1979, ?Shoot Height, Weight and Standing Crop in Relation to Density of Monospecific Plant Stands?,Nature 279, 148?150.

Grant, A. L. M. and Mason, P. J.: 1990, ?Observations of Boundary-Layer Structure over Complex Terrain?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 116, 159?186.

Guest, P. S. and Davidson, K. L.: 1991, ?The Aerodynamic Roughness of Different Types of Sea Ice?,J. Geophys. Res. 96C, 4709?4721.

Harper, J. R. and Wiseman, W. J.: 1977, ?Temporal Variation of Surface Roughness over a Tundra Surface?,J. Geophys. Res. 82, 3495?3497 (Correction:J. Geophys. Res. 83, 968).

Hessler, G.: 1987, ?Variability of Turbulent Momentum Fluxes over a Tideland ? A Case Study?,Meteorol. Rundschau 40, 108?118.

Hicks, B. B., Drinkrow, R. L. and Grauze, G.: 1974, ?Drag and Bulk Transfer Coefficients Associated with a Shallow Water Surface?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 6, 287?297.

Hicks, B. B.: 1976, ?Wind Profile Relations from the Wangara Experiment?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 102, 535?551.

Hicks, B. B. and Wesely, M. L.: 1981, ?Heat and Momentum Transfer Characteristics of Adjacent Fields of Soybeans and Maize?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 20, 175?185.

Högström, U., Bergström, H., Smedman, A. S., Halldin, S. and Lindroth, A.: 1989, ?Turbulent Exchange above a Pine Forest, I: Fluxes and Gradients?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 49, 197?217.

Holmgren, B.: 1971, ?Climate and Energy Exchange on a Sub-Polar Ice Cap in Summer, Part C: On the Katabatic Winds Over the NW Slope of the Ice-Cap. Variations of Surface Roughness?, Meteorol. Inst. Uppsala Univ. Medded. 109.

Holtslag, A. A. M.: 1984, ?Estimates of Diabatic Wind Speed Profiles from Near-Surface Weather Observations?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 29, 225?250.

Hunt, J. C. R.: 1971, ?The Effect of Single Buildings and Structures?,Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London A 269, 457?467.

Hupfer, P.: 1978, ?Zur Abschätzung der Schubspannung des Windes an der Meeresoberfläche bei kurzen Windwirklängen?,Gerlands Beitr. Geophys. 87, 263?266.

Hussain, M. and Lee, B. E.: 1980, ?A Wind Tunnel Study of the Mean Pressure Forces Acting on Large Groups of Low-Rise Buildings?,J. Wind Engin. Industr. Aerodyn. 6, 207?225.

Iqbal, M., Khatry, A. and Seguin, B.: 1977, ?A Study of the Roughness Effects of Multiple Windbreaks?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 11, 187?203.

Jackson, B. S. and Carroll, J. J.: 1978, ?Aerodynamic Roughness as a Function of Wind Direction over Asymmetric Surface Elements?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 14, 323?330.

Jackson, N. A.: 1976, ?The Propagation of Modified Flow Downstream of a Change in Roughness?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 102, 924?933.

Jackson, P. S.: 1981, ?On the Displacement Height in the Logarithmic Velocity Profile?,J. Fluid Mech. 111, 15?25.

Jacobs, A. F. G. and Van Boxel, J. H.: 1988, ?Changes of the Displacement Height and Roughness Length of Maize During a Growing Season?,Agric. Forest Meteorol. 42, 53?62.

Jensen, M.: 1954, ?Shelter Effect, Investigations into the Aerodynamics of Shelter and its Effects on Climate and Crops?, Danish Techn. Press, København, Denmark.

Jensen, M.: 1958, ?The Model-Law for Phenomena in Natural Wind?,Ingeniøren 2, 121?128.

Jensen, M.: 1968, ?Some Lessons Learned in Building Aerodynamics Research?,Proc. Internat. Conf. Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, Ottawa 1967, University of Toronto Press, Vol. 1, pp. 1?18.

Jensen, N. O.: 1978, ?Change of Surface Roughness and the Planetary Boundary Layer?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 104, 351?356.

Joffre, S. M.: 1982, ?Momentum and Heat Transfers in the Surface Layer over a Frozen Sea?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 24, 211?229.

Kalanda, B. D., Oke, T. R. and Spittlehouse, D. L.: 1980, ?Suburban Energy Balance Estimates for Vancouver, B.C., Using the Bowen Ratio ? Energy Balance Approach?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 19, 791?802.

Karlsson, S.: 1986, ?The Applicability of Wind Profile Formulas to an Urban-Rural Interface Site?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 34, 333?355.

Kawatani, T. and Sadeh, W. Z.: 1971, ?An Investigation of Flow over High Roughness?, Proj. Themis T.R.11, Engin. Res. Center Colorado St. Univ., Fort Collins.

Kind, R. J.: 1990, ?Mechanics of Aeolian Transport of Snow and Sand?,J. Wind Engin. Industr. Aerodyn. 36, 855?866.

King, J. C., Mobbs, S. D., Rees, J. M., Anderson, P. S. and Culff, A. D.: 1989, ?The Stable Antarctic Boundary Layer Experiment at Halley Station?,Weather 44, 398?405.

King, J. C.: 1990, ?Some Measurements of Turbulence over an Antarctic Ice Shelf?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 116, 379?400.

Kitaigorodskii, S. A.: 1968, ?On the Calculation of the Aerodynamic Roughness of the Sea Surface?,Izv. Atm. Ocean. Phys. 4, 498?502.

Kondo, J.: 1971, ?Relationship Between the Roughness Coefficient and Other Parameters?,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 49, 121?124.

Kondo, J. and Sato, T.: 1982, ?The Determination of the von Kármán Constant?,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 60, 461?471.

Kondo, J. and Yamazawa, H.: 1986, ?Bulk Transfer Coefficient over a Snow Surface?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 34, 123?135.

Kustas, W. P. and Brutsaert, W.: 1986, ?Wind Profile Constants in a Neutral Atmospheric Boundary Layer over Complex Terrain?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 34, 35?54.

Kustas, W. P., Choudhury, B. J., Kunkel, K. E. and Gay, L. W.: 1989, ?Estimate of the Aerodynamic Roughness Parameters over an Incomplete Canopy Cover of Cotton?,Agric. For. Meteorol. 46, 91?105.

Kutzbach, J. E.: 1961, ?Investigations of the Modification of Wind Profiles by Artificially Controlled Surface Roughness?, p. 71?113 in: H. H. Lettau, ?Studies of the 3-Dimensional Structure of the Planetary Boundary Layer?, (Univ. Wisconsin Contr. Rep. DA-36-039-SC-80282).

Langleben, M. P.: 1972, ?A Study of the Roughness Parameters of Sea Ice from Wind Profiles?,J. Geophys. Res. 77, 5935?5944.

Langleben, M. P.: 1974, ?On Wind Profiles over Sea Ice? (and discusion with C. A. Paulson and N. Untersteiner),Geophys. Res. Lett. 1, 82?85 and 313?315.

Legg, B. J., Long, I. F. and Zemroch, P. J.: 1981, ?Aerodynamic Properties of Field Bean and Potato Crops?,Agric. Meteorol. 23, 21?43.

Leonard, R. E. and Federer, C. A.: 1973, ?Estimated and Measured Roughness Parameters for a Pine Forest?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 12, 302?307.

Lettau, H. H.: 1969, ?Note on Aerodynamic Roughness-Parameter Estimation on the Basis of Roughness-Element Description?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 8, 828?832.

Leuning, R. and Attiwill, P. M.: 1978, ?Mass, Heat and Momentum Exchange Between a Mature Eucalyptus Forest and the Atmosphere?,Agric. Meteorol. 19, 215?241.

Lo, A. K.: 1990, ?On the Determination of Zero-Plane Displacement and Roughness Length for Flow over Forest Canopies?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 51, 255?268.

Long, I. F., Monteith, J. L., Pennman, H. L. and Szeicz, G.: 1964, ?The Plant and Its Environment?,Meteorol. Rundschau 17, 97?101.

Lumley, J. L. and Panofsky, H. A.: 1964,The Structure of Atmospheric Turbulence, Interscience, London, U.K.

Lynch, R. A. and Bradley, E. F.: 1974, ?Shearing Stress Meter?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 13, 588?591.

Maat, N., Kraan, C. and Oost, W. A.: 1991, ?The Roughness of Wind Waves?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 54, 89?103.

Macklin, S. A.: 1983, ?Wind Drag Coefficients Over First-Year Sea Ice in the Bering Sea?,J. Geophys. Res. 88C, 2845?2852.

Marshall, J. K.: 1971, ?Drag Measurements in Roughness Arrays of Varying Density and Distribution?,Agric. Meteorol. 8, 269?292.

Mason, P. J.: 1988, ?The Formation of Areally-Averaged Roughness Lengths?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 114, 399?420.

Mayer, H.: 1975, ?Beiträge zur Meteorologie eines Steppengebietes (Tsumeb/SWA) VII+VIII: Die Parameter des vertikalen Windprofils, Teil I+II?,Meteorol. Rundschau 28, 25?31 and 101?109.

McBean, G. A.: 1972, ?Instrument Requirements for Eddy Correlation Measurements?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 11, 1078?1084.

McEwan, I. K.: 1991, ?The Physics of Sand Transport by Wind?, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Aberdeen, Scotland.

Merry, M. and Panofsky, H. A.: 1976, ?Statistics of Vertical Motion Over Land and Water?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 102, 255?260.

Miyake, M.: 1965, ?Transformation of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Over Inhomogeneous Surfaces?, Sc. Rep. Dep. Atmos. Sc. Univ. Washington.

Monin, A. S. and Yaglom, A. M.: 1971, ?Statistical Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 1: Mechanics of Turbulence?, MIT Press, Cambridge, USA.

Munro, D. S. and Oke, T. R.: 1973, ?Estimating Wind Profile Parameters for Tall Dense Crops?,Agric. Meteorol. 11, 223?228.

Munro, D. S. and Oke, T. R.: 1975, ?Aerodynamic Boundary-Layer Adjustment over a Crop in Neutral Stability?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 9, 53?61.

Nemoto, S.: 1972, ?Some Considerations on the Atmospheric Internal Boundary Layer of the Ground Surface?,Pap. Meteorol. Geophys. 23, 121?134.

Nieuwstadt, F. T. M.: 1978, ?The Computation of the Friction Velocityu * and the Temperature ScaleT * from Temperature and Wind Profiles by Least-Square Methods?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 14, 235?246.

Oemraw, B.: 1984, ?Beschuttingscorrectie Wind?, Roy. Neth. Meteorol. Inst. Tech. Rep. TR-52.

Oke, T. R.: 1978,Boundary Layer Climates, Methuen, U.K.

Oliver, H. R.: 1971, ?Wind Profiles in and Above a Forest Canopy?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 97, 548?553.

Overland, J. E.: 1985, ?Atmospheric Boundary Layer Structure and Drag Coefficients Over Sea Ice?,J. Geophys. Res. 90C, 9029?9049.

Owen, P. R.: 1964, ?Saltation of Uniform Grains in Air?,J. Fluid Mech. 20, 225?242.

Paeschke, W.: 1938, ?Experimentelle Untersuchungen zum Rauhigkeits- und Stabilitätsproblem in der bodennahen Luftschicht?,Beitr. Phys. fr. Atmos. 24, 163?189.

Panofsky, H. A.: 1977, ?Wind Structure in Strong Winds Below 150 m?,Wind Engineering 1, 91?103.

Panofsky, H. A. and Dutton, J. A.: 1984, ?Atmospheric Turbulence ? Models and Methods for Engineering Applications?, Wiley, NY.

Parlange, M. B. and Brutsaert, W.: 1989, ?Regional Roughness of the Landes Forest and Surface Shear Stress Under Neutral Conditions?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 48, 69?81.

Pasquill, F.: 1950, ?The Aerodynamic Drag of Grassland?,Proc. Roy. Soc. London A202, 143?153.

Pasquill, F.: 1972, ?Some Aspects of Boundary Layer Description?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 98, 469?494.

Pasquill, F.: 1974, ?Special Meteorological Factors in Diffusion Calculations?,Atmospheric Diffusion, 2nd ed., Wiley, pp. 334?353.

Perrier, E. R., Robertson, J. M., Millington, R. J. and Peters, D. B.: 1972, ?Spatial and Temporal Variations of Wind Above and Within a Soybean Canopy?,Agric. Meteorol. 10, 421?442.

Peterson, E. W.: 1969a, ?Modification of Mean Flow and Turbulent Energy by a Change in Surface Roughness Under Conditions of Neutral Stability?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 95, 561?575.

Peterson, E. W.: 1969b,?On the Relation Between the Shear Stress and the Velocity Profile after a Change in Surface Roughness?, and disc, with P. Bradshaw,J. Atmos. Sci. 26, 773?774 and 1353?1355.

Peterson, E. W.: 1971, ?Prediction of the Momentum Exchange Coefficient for Flow over Heterogeneous Terrain?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 10, 958?961.

Peterson, E. W., Kristensen, L., and Su, C. C.: 1976, ?Some Observations and Analysis of Wind over Non-Uniform Terrain?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 102, 857?869.

Peterson, E. W., Busch, N. E., Jensen, N. O., Højstrup, J. Kristensen, L. and Petersen, E. L.: 1978, ?The Effect of Local Terrain Irregularities on the Mean Wind and Turbulence Characteristics Near the Ground?, WMO-No. 510. (Symp. on BL Physics applied to Air Pollution, Nörrköping) pp. 45?50.

Peterson, E. W., Jensen, N. O. and Højstrup, J.: 1979, ?Observations of Downwind Development of Windspeed and Variance Profiles at Bognaes and Comparison with Theory?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 105, 521?529.

Pielke, R. A.: 1984,Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling, Academic Press, NY.

Pinker, R. T. and Holland, J. Z.: 1988, ?Turbulence Structure of a Tropical Forest?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 43, 43?63.

Priestley, C. H. B.: 1959, ?Estimation of Surface Stress and Heat Flux from Profile Data?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 85, 415?418.

Rao, K. S., Wyngaard, J. C. and Coté, O. R.: 1974, ?The Structure of the Two-Dimensional Internal Boundary Layer over a Sudden Change in Surface Roughness?,J. Atmos. Sci. 31, 738?746.

Raupach, M. R., Thom, A. S. and Edwards, I.: 1980, ?Windtunnel Study of Turbulent Flow Close to Regularly Arrayed Rough Surfaces?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 18, 373?397.

Raupach, M. R. and Thom, A. S.: 1981, ?Turbulence In an Above Plant Canopies?,Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 13, 97?129.

Raynor, G. S.: 1971, ?Wind and Temperature Structure in a Coniferous Forest and a Contiguous Field?,Forest Sci. 17, 351?363.

Rider, N. E., Philip, J. R. and Bradley, E. F.: 1963, ?The Horizontal Transport of Heat and Moisture ?A Micrometeorological Study?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 89, 507?531.

Riou, C.: 1984, ?Simplified Calculation of the Zero-Plane Displacement from Wind-Speed Profiles?,J. Hydrol. 69, 351?357.

Riou, C., Pieri, P. and Valancogne, C.: 1987, ?Variation de la Vitesse du vent à l'intérieur et audessus d'une vigne?,Agric. Forest Meteorol. 39, 143?154.

Sacré, C.: 1981, ?Strong Wind Structure near a Sea-Land Roughness Discontinuity?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 21, 57?76.

Saugier, B. and Ripley, E. A.: 1978, ?Evaluation of the Aerodynamic Method of Determining Fluxes over Natural Grassland?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 104, 257?270.

Schmid, H. P. and Oke, T. R.: 1990, ?A Model to Estimate the Source Area Contributing to Turbulent Exchange in the Surface Layer over Patchy Terrain?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 116, 965?988.

Schmidt, R. A.: 1982, ?Vertical Profiles of Wind Speed, Snow Concentration and Humidity in Blowing Snow?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 23, 223?246.

Schmidt, R. A.: 1986, ?Transport Rate of Drifting Snow and the Mean Wind Speed Profile?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 34, 213?241.

Seginer, I.: 1974, ?Aerodynamic Roughness of Vegetated Surfaces?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 5, 383?393.

Seginer, I.: 1975, ?Atmospheric-Stability Effect on Windbreak Shelter and Drag?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 9, 383?400.

Seguin, B.: 1973, ?Rugosité du paysage et evapotranspiration potentielle à l'échelle régionale?,Agric. Meteorol. 11, 79?98.

Shaw, R. H. and Pereira, A. R.: 1982, ?Aerodynamic Roughness of a Plant Canopy, a Numerical Experiment?,Agric. Meteorol. 26, 51?65.

Shaw, R. H., Den Hartog, G. and Neumann, H. H.: 1988, ?Influence of Foliar Density and Thermal Stability on Profiles of Reynolds Stress and Turbulence Intensity in a Deciduous Forest?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 45, 391?409.

Sheppard, P. A.: 1947, ?The Aerodynamic Drag of the Earth's Surface and the Value of von Karman's Constant in the Atmosphere?,Proc. Roy. Soc. London A188, 208?222.

Shiotani, M.: 1962, ?The Relationship Between Wind Profiles and Stabilities of the Air Layer in the Outskirts of a City?,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 40, 315?329.

Shir, C. C.: 1972, ?A Numerical Computation of Air Flow Over a Sudden Change in Surface Roughness?,J. Atmos. Sci. 29, 304?310.

Silversides, R. H.: 1979, ?Forest and Airport Wind Speeds?,Atmos.-Ocean 16, 293?299.

Smedman-Högström, A. S. and Högström, U.: 1978, ?A Practical Method for Determining Wind Frequency Distributions for the Lowest 200 m from Routine Meteorological Data?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 17, 942?954.

Smith, F. B. and Carson, D. J.: 1977, ?Some Thoughts on the Specification of the Boundary Layer Relevant for Numerical Modelling?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 12, 307?330.

Smith, S. D.: 1972, ?Wind Stress and Turbulence over a Flat Ice Floe?,J. Geophys. Res.,77, 3886?3901.

Smith, S. D.: Banke, E. G. and Johannessen, O. M.: 1970, ?Wind Stress and Turbulence Over Ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence?,J. Geophys. Res.,75, 2803?2812.

Snyder, W. H.: 1972, ?Similarity Criteria for the Application of Fluid Models to the Study of Air Pollution Meteorology?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 3, 113?134.

Stearns, C. R.: 1970, ?Determining Surface Roughness and Displacement Height?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 1, 102?111.

Stearns, C. R.: 1971, ?The Effect of Time-Variable Fluxes on Mean Wind and Temperature Profile Structure?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 1, 389?398.

Steyn, D. G.: 1982, ?Turbulence in an Unstable Surface Layer over Suburban Terrain?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 22, 183?191.

Stull, R. B.: 1988,An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology Kluwer, Netherlands.

Sunde, A.: 1968, ?Wind Structure at Svinøy?,Meteorol. Ann. 5, 17?29.

Szeicz, G., Endrödi, G. and Tajchman, S.: 1969, ?Aerodynamic and Surface Factors in Evaporation?,Water Res. Res. 5, 380?394.

Tajchman, S. J.: 1981, ?Comments on Measuring Turbulent Exchange Within and Above Forest Canopy?,Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 62, 1550?1559.

Takeda, K.: 1966, ?On Roughness Length and Zero-Plane Displacement in the Wind Profile of the Lowest Air Layer?,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 44, 101?108.

Tanner, C. B. and Pelton, W. L.: 1960, ?Potential Evapotranspiration Estimates by the Approximate Energy Balance Method of Penman?,J. Geophys. Res. 65, 3391?3413.

Tanner, C. B.: 1963, ?Wind and Wind Profile Measurements?,Soils Bull. 6, Section W, 9?13.

Taylor, P. A.: 1983, ?On Wakes and the Net Forces Produced by Surface-Mounted Obstacles in Neutrally Stratified Atmospheric Boundary Layers?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol.,27, 393?412.

Taylor, P. A.: 1987, ?Comments and Further Analysis on the Effective Roughness Length for Use in Numerical Three-Dimensional Models ? A Research Note?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 39, 403?418.

Tennekes, H.: 1973, ?The Logarithmic Wind Profile?,J. Atmos. Sci. 30, 234?238.

Tennekes, H.: 1982, ?Similarity Relations, Scaling Laws and Spectral Dynamics?, in F. T. M. Nieuwstadt and H. Van Dop, (eds.),Atmospheric Turbulence and Air Pollution Modelling, Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 37?68.

Tetzlaff, G.: 1974, ?Der Wärmehaushalt in der zentralen Sahara?, Ber. Inst. Meteorol. Klim. Univ. Hannover13.

Thom, A. S.: 1971, ?Momentum Absorption by Vegetation?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 97, 414?428.

Thom, A. S., Oliver, H. R. and Gash, J. H. C.: 1975, ?Comparison of Aerodynamic and Energy Budget Estimates of Fluxes over a Pine Forest?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 101, 93?105.

Thompson, N.: 1979, ?Turbulence Measurements Above a Pine Forest?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 16, 293?310.

Tieleman, H. W.: 1992, ?Wind Characteristics in the Surface Layer over Heterogeneous Terrain?,J. Wind Engin. Industr. Aerodyn. 41, 329?340.

Troen, I., Mortensen, N. G. and Petersen, E. L.: 1987, ?WAsP Wind Analysis and Application Programme (User's Guide)?, Risø Nation. Lab., Denmark.

Van Dop, H.: 1983, ?Terrain Classifications and Derived Meteorological Parameters for Interregional Transport Models?,Atmos. Envir. 17, 1099?1105.

Vermeulen, P. E. J.: 1986, ?Experimenteel onderzoek ten behoeve van de modelbeschrijving van driedimensionale ruwheidsovergangen?, Rep. MT-TNO (Apeldoorn) Ref. 86-201.

Viswanadham, Y., Molion, L. C. B., Manzi, A. O., Sã, L. D. A., Silva Filho, V. P., André, R. G. B., Nogueira, J. L. M. and Dos Santos, R. C.: 1990, ?Micrometeorological Measurements in Amazon Forest During GTE/ABLE 2A Mission?,J. Geophys. Res. 95D, 13669?13682.

Vogt, R. and Jaeger, L.: 1990, ?Evaporation from a Pine Forest, Using the Aerodynamic Method and Bowen Ratio Method?,Agric. For. Meteorol. 50, 39?54.

Vugts, H. F. and Cannemeijer, F.: 1981, ?Measurements of Drag Coefficients and Roughness Length at a Sea-Beach Interface?,J. Appl. Meteorol. 20, 335?340.

Walk, O. and Wieringa, J.: 1988, ?Tsumeb Studies of the Tropical Boundary-Layer Climate?, Wiss. Ber. Inst. Meteorol. Univ. Karlsruhe11.

Wallace, J. S., Lloyd, C. R., Roberts, J. and Shuttleworth, W. J.: 1984, ?A Comparison of Methods for Estimating Aerodynamic Resistance of Heather in the Field?,Agric. For. Meteorol. 32, 289?305.

Walmsley, J. L.: 1988, ?On Theoretical Wind Speed and Temperature Profiles over the Sea with Applications to Data from Sable Island, Nova Scotia?,Atmos.-Ocean 26, 203?233.

Walmsley, J. L.: 1989, ?Internal Boundary-Layer Height Formulae ? A Comparison with Atmospheric Data?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 47, 251?262.

Watanabe, T. and Kondo, J.: 1990, ?The Influence of Canopy Structure and Density upon the Mixing Length Within and Above Vegetation?,J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan 68, 227?235.

Weiss, A. and Allen, L. H.: 1976, ?Vertical and Horizontal Air Flow Above Rows of a Vineyard?,Agric. Meteorol. 17, 433?452.

Wessels, H. R. A.: 1984, ?Distortion of the Wind Field by the Cabauw Meteorological Tower?,WMO Instr. and Obs. Meth. Rep. 15 (TECEMO Conf.) pp. 251?256.

Wieringa, J.: 1971, ?Tilt Errors and Precipitation Effects in Trivane Measurements of Turbulent Fluxes Over Open Water?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 2, 406?426.

Wieringa, J.: 1973, ?Gust Factors Over Open Water and Built-Up Country?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 3, 424?441.

Wieringa, J.: 1976, ?An Objective Exposure Correction Method for Average Wind Speeds Measured at a Sheltered Location?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 102, 241?253.

Wieringa, J.: 1977, ?Wind Representativity Increase Due to an Exposure Correction, Obtainable from Past Analog Station Wind Records?, WMO-No.480 (TECIMO Conf.), pp. 39?44.

Wieringa, J.: 1980, ?A Revaluation of the Kansas Mast Influence on Measurements of Stress and Cup Anemometer Overspeeding?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 18, 411?430.

Wieringa, J.: 1981, ?Estimation of Mesoscale and Local-Scale Roughness for Atmospheric Transport Modeling?, in C. de Wispelaere (ed.),Air Pollution Modeling and its Application, Plenum, N.Y., pp. 279?295.

Wieringa, J.: 1983, ?Description Requirements for Assessment of Non-Ideal Wind Stations ? For Example Aachen?,J. Wind Engin. Industr. Aerodyn. 11, 121?131.

Wieringa, J.: 1986, ?Roughness-Dependent Geographical Interpolation of Surface Wind Speed Averages?,Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 112, 867?889.

Wieringa, J.: 1989, ?Shapes of Annual Frequency Distributions of Wind Speed Observed on High Meteorological Masts?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 47, 85?110.

Wieringa, J.: 1992, ?Updating the Davenport Terrain Roughness Classification?,J. Wind Engin. Industr. Aerodyn. 41, 357?368

Wieringa, J. and Van der Veer, P. J. M.: 1976, ?Nederlandse Windstations 1971?1974?, Roy. Neth. Meteorol. Inst. Tech. Rep. V-278.

Wood, N. and Mason, P. J.: 1990, ?The Influence of Stability on Effective Roughness Lengths?,Prepr. 9th Am. Meteorol. Soc. Symp. on Turbulence & Diffusion (Roskilde), pp. 247?248.

Wooding, R. A., Bradley, E. F. and Marshall, J. K.: 1973, ?Drag Due to Regular Arrays of Roughness Elements of Varying Geometry?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 5, 285?308.

Wu, J.: 1980, ?Wind Stress Coefficients Over Sea Surface Near Neutral Conditions. A Revisit?,J. Phys. Ocean. 10, 727?740.

Wucknitz, J.: 1977, ?Disturbance of Wind Profile Measurements by a Slim Mast?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 11, 155?169.

Yersel, M. and Goble, R.: 1986, ?Roughness Effects on Urban Turbulence Parameters?,Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 37, 271?284.

Zhang, S. F., Oncley, S. P. and Businger, J. A.: 1988, ?A Critical Evaluation of the von Kármán Constant from a New Surface Layer Experiment?,Prepr. 8th Am. Meteorol. Soc. Symp. on Turbulence & Diffusion (San Diego), pp. 148?150.