Renin–angiotensin system: Basic and clinical aspects—A general perspective

Kobori, 2007, The intrarenal renin–angiotensin system: from physiology to the pathobiology of hypertension and kidney disease, Pharmacol Rev, 59, 251, 10.1124/pr.59.3.3 Lavoie, 2003, Minireview: overview of the renin–angiotensin system—an endocrine and paracrine system, Endocrinology, 144, 2179, 10.1210/en.2003-0150 Ichihara, 2007, The (pro)renin receptor and the kidney, Semin Nephrol, 27, 524, 10.1016/j.semnephrol.2007.07.005 Ichihara, 2009, Renin, prorenin and the kidney: a new chapter in an old saga, J Nephrol, 22, 306 Persson, 2003, Renin: origin, secretion and synthesis, J Physiol, 552, 667, 10.1113/jphysiol.2003.049890 Matsusaka, 2012, Liver angiotensinogen is the primary source of renal angiotensin II, J Am Soc Nephrol, 23, 1181, 10.1681/ASN.2011121159 Paz Ocaranza, 2020, Counter-regulatory renin–angiotensin system in cardiovascular disease, Nat Rev Cardiol, 17, 116, 10.1038/s41569-019-0244-8 Satou, 2018, Inflammation as a regulator of the renin–angiotensin system and blood pressure, Curr Hypertens Rep, 20, 100, 10.1007/s11906-018-0900-0 Burrell, 2004, ACE2, a new regulator of the renin–angiotensin system, Trends Endocrinol Metab, 15, 166, 10.1016/j.tem.2004.03.001 Gembardt, 2008, Angiotensin metabolites can stimulate receptors of the Mas-related genes family, Mol Cell Biochem, 319, 115, 10.1007/s11010-008-9884-4 Higuchi, 2007, Angiotensin II signal transduction through the AT1 receptor: novel insights into mechanisms and pathophysiology, Clin Sci, 112, 417, 10.1042/CS20060342 Matsusaka, 1997, Biological functions of angiotensin and its receptors, Annu Rev Physiol, 59, 395, 10.1146/annurev.physiol.59.1.395 Riordan, 2003, Angiotensin-I-converting enzyme and its relatives, Genome Biol, 4, 225, 10.1186/gb-2003-4-8-225 Carey, 2017, Update on angiotensin AT2 receptors, Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens, 26, 91 Santos, 2003, Angiotensin-(1-7) is an endogenous ligand for the G protein-coupled receptor Mas, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 100, 8258, 10.1073/pnas.1432869100 Villela, 2014, Alamandine: a new member of the angiotensin family, Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens, 23, 130, 10.1097/01.mnh.0000441052.44406.92 Yugandhar, 2013, Angiotensin III: a physiological relevant peptide of the renin angiotensin system, Peptides, 46, 26, 10.1016/j.peptides.2013.04.014 Turner, 2004, ACE2: from vasopeptidase to SARS virus receptor, Trends Pharmacol Sci, 25, 291, 10.1016/j.tips.2004.04.001 Wang, 2020, The ACE2-deficient mouse: a model for a cytokine storm-driven inflammation, FASEB J, 34, 10505, 10.1096/fj.202001020R Chai, 2004, The angiotensin IV/AT4 receptor, Cell Mol Life Sci, 61, 2728, 10.1007/s00018-004-4246-1 Povlsen, 2020, The vasoactive mas receptor in essential hypertension, J Clin Med, 9, 267, 10.3390/jcm9010267 Schroten, 2012, New roles for renin and prorenin in heart failure and cardiorenal crosstalk, Heart Fail Rev, 17, 191, 10.1007/s10741-011-9262-2 Soler, 2008, Angiotensin converting enzyme 2 and its emerging role in the regulation of the renin angiotensin system, Med Clin (Barc), 131, 230, 10.1157/13124619 Wu, 2018, Renin–angiotensin system and cardiovascular functions, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 38, e108, 10.1161/ATVBAHA.118.311282 Boustany, 2004, Activation of the systemic and adipose renin–angiotensin system in rats with diet-induced obesity and hypertension, Am J Physiol-Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 287, R943, 10.1152/ajpregu.00265.2004 Kalupahana, 2012, The renin–angiotensin system: a link between obesity, inflammation and insulin resistance, Obes Rev, 13, 136, 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00942.x Ramalingam, 2017, The renin angiotensin system, oxidative stress and mitochondrial function in obesity and insulin resistance, Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis, 1863, 1106, 10.1016/j.bbadis.2016.07.019 Henriksen, 2013, The role of the renin–angiotensin system in the development of insulin resistance in skeletal muscle, Mol Cell Endocrinol, 378, 15, 10.1016/j.mce.2012.04.011 Graus-Nunes, 2019, The renin–angiotensin system as a target to solve the riddle of endocrine pancreas homeostasis, Biomed Pharmacother, 109, 639, 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.10.191 Underwood, 2013, The renin angiotensin aldosterone system and insulin resistance in humans, Curr Hypertens Rep, 15, 59, 10.1007/s11906-012-0323-2 Paschos, 2012, Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and the renin–angiotensin system: Implications for treatment, World J Hepatol, 4, 327, 10.4254/wjh.v4.i12.327 Goh, 2015, Renin–angiotensin system and fibrosis in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, Liver Int, 35, 979, 10.1111/liv.12611 Phipps, 2019, The renin–angiotensin system and the retinal neurovascular unit: a role in vascular regulation and disease, Exp Eye Res, 187, 107753, 10.1016/j.exer.2019.107753 Nehme, 2019, An update on the tissue renin angiotensin system and its role in physiology and pathology, J Cardiovasc Dev Dis, 6, 14, 10.3390/jcdd6020014 Sansoè, 2020, Pathways of hepatic and renal damage through non-classical activation of the renin–angiotensin system in chronic liver disease, Liver Int, 40, 18, 10.1111/liv.14272 Jerng, 2007, Role of the renin–angiotensin system in ventilator-induced lung injury: an in vivo study in a rat model, Thorax, 62, 527, 10.1136/thx.2006.061945 Marshall, 2003, The pulmonary renin–angiotensin system, Curr Pharm Des, 9, 715, 10.2174/1381612033455431 Bastos, 2020, Oral formulation angiotensin-(1-7) therapy attenuates pulmonary and systemic damage in mice with emphysema induced by elastase, Immunobiology, 225, 151893, 10.1016/j.imbio.2019.12.002 Ciftciler, 2020, Pathobiological interactions of local bone marrow renin–angiotensin system and central nervous system in systemic arterial hypertension, Front Endocrinol, 11, 425, 10.3389/fendo.2020.00425 Mo, 2020, Role of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system in bone metabolism, J Bone Miner Metab, 38, 772, 10.1007/s00774-020-01132-y Costa, 2021, Modulatory action of environmental enrichment on hormonal and behavioral responses induced by chronic stress in rats: hypothalamic renin–angiotensin system components, Behav Brain Res, 397, 112928, 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112928 Jackson, 2018, Within the brain: the renin angiotensin system, Int J Mol Sci, 19, 876, 10.3390/ijms19030876 Nakagawa, 2017, How is the brain renin–angiotensin system regulated?, Hypertension, 70, 10, 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.117.08550 Vadhan, 2021, The role of the brain renin–angiotensin system (RAS) in mild traumatic brain injury (TBI), Pharmacol Ther, 218, 107684, 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107684 Düsing, 2016, Pharmacological interventions into the renin–angiotensin system with ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists: effects beyond blood pressure lowering, Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis, 10, 151, 10.1177/1753944716644130 Cassis, 2008, Local adipose tissue renin–angiotensin system, Curr Hypertens Rep, 10, 93, 10.1007/s11906-008-0019-9 Yvan-Charvet, 2011, Role of adipose tissue renin–angiotensin system in metabolic and inflammatory diseases associated with obesity, Kidney Int, 79, 162, 10.1038/ki.2010.391 Cao, 2016, Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2/angiotensin-(1-7)/Mas axis activates Akt signaling to ameliorate hepatic steatosis, Sci Rep, 6, 21592, 10.1038/srep21592 Cao, 2019, Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 regulates endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial function to preserve skeletal muscle lipid metabolism, Lipids Health Dis, 18, 207, 10.1186/s12944-019-1145-x Colombo, 2013, Effects of nicotine on cardiovascular remodeling in a mouse model of systemic hypertension, Cardiovasc Toxicol, 13, 364, 10.1007/s12012-013-9217-z Li, 2004, Nicotine enhances angiotensin II-induced mitogenic response in vascular smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 24, 80, 10.1161/01.ATV.0000104007.17365.1c Oakes, 2018, Nicotine and the renin–angiotensin system, Am J Physiol-Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 315, R895, 10.1152/ajpregu.00099.2018 Kamide, 2014, Role of renin–angiotensin-aldosterone system in metabolic syndrome and obesity-related hypertension, Curr Hypertens Rev, 10.2174/1573402110666140812122349 Matsusaka, 2002, The renin angiotensin system and kidney development, Annu Rev Physiol, 64, 551, 10.1146/annurev.physiol.64.081501.155721 Bourgonje, 2020, Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), SARS-CoV-2 and the pathophysiology of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), J Pathol, 251, 228, 10.1002/path.5471 Lu, 2018, Intestinal dysbiosis activates renal renin–angiotensin system contributing to incipient diabetic nephropathy, Int J Med Sci, 15, 816, 10.7150/ijms.25543 Bor-Kucukatay, 2006, Increased deformability of red blood cells is associated with a deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene, Tohoku J Exp Med, 208, 147, 10.1620/tjem.208.147 Brown, 2000, Prothrombotic effects of angiotensin, Adv Intern Med, 45, 419 Palumbo, 2016, The ovarian renin–angiotensin system (OVRAS): a major factor in ovarian function and disease, Reprod Sci, 23, 1644, 10.1177/1933719116672588 Bernstein, 2018, Angiotensin-converting enzyme in innate and adaptive immunity, Nat Rev Nephrol, 14, 325, 10.1038/nrneph.2018.15 Crowley, 2017, Immunologic effects of the renin–angiotensin system, J Am Soc Nephrol, 28, 1350, 10.1681/ASN.2016101066 Todros, 2020, COVID-19 infection: ACE2, pregnancy and preeclampsia, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 253, 330, 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2020.08.007 George, 2010, The renin–angiotensin system and cancer: old dog, new tricks, Nat Rev Cancer, 10, 745, 10.1038/nrc2945 Rasha, 2019, Mechanisms linking the renin–angiotensin system, obesity, and breast cancer, Endocr Relat Cancer, 26, R653, 10.1530/ERC-19-0314 Johnston, 1990, Biochemistry and pharmacology of the renin–angiotensin system, Drugs, 39, 21, 10.2165/00003495-199000391-00005 Zoufaly, 2020, Human recombinant soluble ACE2 in severe COVID-19, Lancet Respir Med, 8, 1154, 10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30418-5 Kai, 2020, Interactions of coronaviruses with ACE2, angiotensin II, and RAS inhibitors-lessons from available evidence and insights into COVID-19, Hypertens Res, 43, 648, 10.1038/s41440-020-0455-8 Li, 2003, Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus, Nature, 426, 450, 10.1038/nature02145 Gheblawi, 2020, Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2: SARS-CoV-2 receptor and regulator of the renin–angiotensin system, Circ Res, 126, 1456, 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.120.317015