Reforming Watershed Restoration: Science in Need of Application and Applications in Need of Science

Margaret A. Palmer1
1Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Solomons, MD 20688, USA

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Ambrose, R.F., J. C. Callaway, and S.F. Lee. 2007. An Evaluation of Compensatory Mitigation Projects Permitted Under Clean Water Act Section 401 by the California State Water Resources Control Board, 1991–2002. Final report to the Water Resources Control Board of California.

Bain, D.J., S.M.C. Smith, and G.N. Nagle. 2008. Reservations about dam findings. Science 321: 910. doi: 10.1126/science.321.5891.910a .

Berkes, R., J. Colding, and C. Folke (Editors). 2003. Navigating socio–ecological systems: building resilience for complexity and change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Bernhardt, E.S., M.A. Palmer, J.D. Allan, G. Alexander, S. Brooks, J. Carr, C. Dahm, J. Follstad-Shah, D.L. Galat, S. Gloss, P. Goodwin, D. Hart, B. Hassett, R. Jenkinson, G.M. Kondolf, S. Lake, R. Lave, J.L. Meyer, T.K. O’Donnell, L. Pagano, P. Srivastava, and E. Sudduth. 2005. Restoration of U.S. Rivers: a national synthesis. Science 308: 636–637. doi: 10.1126/science.1109769 .

Bernhardt, E.S., E.B. Sudduth, M.A. Palmer, J.D. Allan, J.L. Meyer, and G. Alexander. 2007. Restoring rivers one reach at a time: results from a survey of U.S. river protection practitioners. Restoration Ecology 15: 482–494. doi: 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2007.00244.x .

Berry, W., N. Rubinstein, B. Melzian, and B. Hill. 2003. The Biological Effects of Suspended and Bedded Sediment (SABS) in Aquatic Systems: A Review. An internal EPA report. http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/sediment/pdf/appendix1.pdf . Accessed 27 July 2008.

Boesch, D.F. 2006. Scientific requirements for ecosystem-based management in the restoration of Chesapeake Bay and Coastal Louisiana. Ecological Engineering 26: 6–26. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2005.09.004 .

Boström, C., E.L. Jackson, and C.A. Simenstad. 2006. Seagrass landscapes and their effects on associated fauna: a review. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 68: 383–403. doi: 10.1016/j.ecss.2006.01.026 .

Bottom, D.L., K.K. Jones, T.J. Cornwell, A. Gray, and C.A. Simenstad. 2005. Patterns of Chinook salmon migration and residency in the Salmon River estuary (Oregon). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 64: 79–93. doi: 10.1016/j.ecss.2005.02.008 .

Brooks, R.P., D.H. Wardrop, and J.A. Bishop. 2004. Assessing wetland condition on a watershed basis in the Mid Atlantic region using synoptic land cover maps. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 94: 9–22. doi: 10.1023/B:EMAS.0000016876.63062.3d .

Brown, B.L. 2003. Spatial heterogeneity reduces temporal variability in stream insect communities. Ecology Letters 6: 316–325. doi: 10.1046/j.1461-0248.2003.00431.x .

Brush, G.S. 2008. Historical Land Use, Nitrogen, and Coastal Eutrophication: A Paleoecological Perspective. Estuaries and Coasts. doi: 10.1007/s12237-008-9106-z

Bunn, S.E., E.G. Abal, P.F. Greenfield, and D.M. Tarte. 2007. Making the connection between healthy waterways and healthy catchments: South East Queensland, Australia. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 7: 93–100. doi: 10.2166/ws.2007.044 .

Bunt, C.M., H.J. MacIsaac, and W.C. Sprules. 1993. Pumping rates and projected filtering impacts of juvenile zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) in western Lake Erie. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 50: 1017–1022. doi: 10.1139/f93-117 .

CalFed. 2008. The California Bay-Delta Ecosystem Restoration Program. http://www.delta.dfg.ca.gov/erp/ . Last accessed 12-02-08.

Cardinale, B.J., and M.A. Palmer. 2002. Disturbance moderates biodiversity—ecosystem function relationships: experimental evidence from caddisflies in stream mesocosms. Ecology 83: 1915–1927.

Cardinale, B.J., K. Nelson, and M.A. Palmer. 2001. Linking species diversity to the functioning of ecosystems: on the importance of environmental context. Oikos 91: 175–193. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.910117.x .

Cardinale, B.J., M.A. Palmer, C.M. Swan, S. Brooks, and N.L. Poff. 2002. The influence of physical habitat on the rates of biofilm metabolism in a stream ecosystem. Ecology 83: 412–422.

Cardinale, B.J., D.S. Srivastava, J.E. Duffy, J.P. Wright, A.L. Downing, M. Sankaran, and C. Jouseau. 2006. Effects of biodiversity on the functioning of trophic groups and ecosystems. Nature 443: 989–992. doi: 10.1038/nature05202 .

Carpenter, S.R., D. Ludwig, and W.A. Brock. 1999. Management of eutrophication for lakes subject to potentially irreversible change. Ecological Applications 9: 751–771. doi: 10.1890/1051-0761(1999)009[0751:MOEFLS]2.0.CO;2 .

Carter, R.W.G., and C.D. Woodroffe (Editors). 1994. Coastal evolution. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

Chambers, J.C., and A.R. Linnerooth. 2001. Restoring riparian meadows currently dominated by Artemesia using alternative state concepts—the establishment component. Applied Vegetation Science 4: 157–166.

Chesapeake Bay Program (CBP). 2007. What are tributary strategies? http://archive.chesapeakebay.net/pubs/tribstrats_backgrounder_final.pdf . Accessed 27 July 2008.

Cloern, J.E., A.D. Jassby, J.K. Thompson, and K.A. Hieb. 2007. A cold phase of the East Pacific triggers new phytoplankton blooms in San Francisco Bay. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 104: 18561–18565. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0706151104 .

Cole, C.A. 2006. HGM and wetland functional assessment: Six degrees of separation from the data? Ecological Indicators 6: 485–493. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2005.06.004 .

Copeland, J.A., and C. Zinn. 2008. Wetlands: an overview of issues. Congressional Review Service publication RL33483, www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RL33483.pdf . Accessed online November 5, 2008.

Craig, L.S., M.A. Palmer, D.C. Richardson1, S. Filoso, E.S. Bernhardt, B.P. Bledsoe4, M.W. Doyle, P.M. Groffman, B. Hassett, S.S. Kaushal, P.M. Mayer, S.M. Smith, and P.R. Wilcock. 2008. Stream restoration strategies for reducing nitrogen loads. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6. doi: 10.1890/070080

Davidar, P., K. Yoganand, and T. Ganesh. 2001. Distribution of forest birds in the Andaman islands: importance of key habitats. Journal of Biogeography 8: 663–671. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2699.2001.00584.x .

DeAngelis, D.L., and J.C. Waterhouse. 1987. Equilibrium and nonequilibrium concepts in ecological models. Ecological Monographs 57: 1–21. doi: 10.2307/1942636 .

Duarte, C., and D.J. Conley. 2008. Return to Neverland: Shifting Baselines Affect Eutrophication Restoration Targets. Estuaries and Coasts. doi: 10.1007/s12237-008-9111-2

Dudgeon, D. 2005. River management for conservation of freshwater biodiversity in monsoonal Asia. Ecology and Society 10: 15. [online] http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol10/iss2/art15/ .

Ehrenfeld, J.G., and L. Toth. 1997. Restoration ecology and the ecosystem perspective. Restoration Ecology 5: 307–317. doi: 10.1046/j.1526-100X.1997.00544.x .

Elmqvist, T., C. Folke, M. Nyström, G. Peterson, J. Bengtsson, B. Walker, and J. Norberg. 2003. Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and Environmental Science 1: 488–494.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2006. Wadeable stream assessment: A Collaborative Survey of the Nation’s Streams. EPA 841-B-06-002. http://www.epa.gov/owow/streamsurvey/pdf/WSA_Assessment_May2007.pdf . Accessed 27 July 2008.

Euliss, N.H. Jr., L.M. Smith, D.A. Wilcox, and B.A. Browne. 2008. Linking ecological processes with wetland management goals: charting a course for a sustainable future. Wetlands 28: 553–562. doi: 10.1672/07-154.1 .

Falk, D.A., C.M. Richards, A.M. Montalvo, and E.E. Knapp. 2006. Population and ecological genetics in restoration ecology. In Foundations of restoration ecology. 14-41, Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Federal Register 2008. U.S. EPA and U.S. ACOE Compensatory Mitigation for Losses of Federal Register. 2008. Aquatic Resources. Vol. 73 (70) April 10, 2008/Rules and Regulations. http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/pdf/wetlands_mitigation_final_rule_4_10_08.pdf . Last accessed online November 5, 2008.

Fellows, C.S., J.E. Clapcott, J.W. Udy, S.E. Bunn, B.D. Harch, M.J. Smith, and P.M. Davies. 2006. Benthic metabolism as an indicator of stream ecosystem health. Hydrobiologia 572: 71–87. doi: 10.1007/s10750-005-9001-6 .

Florsheim, J.K., J.F. Mount, and A. Chin. 2008. Bank erosion as a desirable attribute of rivers. BioScience 58: 519–529. doi: 10.1641/B580608 .

Gorshkov, Y.A., A.L. Easter-Pilcher, B.K. Pilcher, and D. Gorshkov. 1999. Ecological restoration by harnessing the work of beaver. In Beaver protection, management, and utilization in Europe and North America, eds. Busher, P.E. and R.M. Dzieciolowski, 67–85. NY: Plenum Publishers.

Grabowski, J.H. 2004. Habitat complexity disrupts predator–prey interactions but not the trophic cascade on oyster reefs. Ecology 85: 995–1004. doi: 10.1890/03-0067 .

Grabowski, J.H., and C.H. Peterson. 2007. Restoring oyster reefs to recover ecosystem services. In Ecosystem engineers: concepts, theory and applications, eds. Cuddington, K., J.E. Byers, W.G. Wilson, and A. Hastings, 281–298. Amsterdam: Elsevier-Academic Press.

Grant, E.H.C., W.H. Lowe, and W.F. Fagan. 2007. Living in the branches: population dynamics and ecological processes in dendritic networks. Ecology Letters 10: 165–175. doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.01007.x .

Gutshall, M. 2004. Back to the Future: Stream Corridor Restoration and Some New Uses for Old Floodplains. A Landstudies, Inc. Report. http://www.landstudies.com/BacktotheFuture.pdf . Accessed July 16 2008.

Hanski, I., and O. Gaggiotti. 2004. The ecology, genetics and evolution of metapopulations. San Diego: Academic Press.

Harding, J.M., and R. Mann. 2001. Oyster reefs as fish habitat: Opportunistic use of restored reefs by transient fishes. Journal of Shellfish Research 20: 951–959.

Hassett, B., M.A. Palmer, E.S. Bernhardt, S. Smith, J. Carr, and D. Hart. 2005. Status and trends of river and stream restoration in the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 3: 259–267.

Hector, A., and R. Bagchi. 2007. Biodiversity and ecosystem multi-functionality. Nature 448: 188–191. doi: 10.1038/nature05947 .

Hentschel, B.T., and A.A. Larson. 2005. Growth rates of interface-feeding polychaetes: combined effects of flow speed and suspended food concentration. Marine Ecology Progress Series 293: 119–129. doi: 10.3354/meps293119 .

Hobbs, R.J., and D.A. Norton. 1996. Towards a conceptual framework for restoration ecology. Restoration Ecology 4: 93–110. doi: 10.1111/j.1526-100X.1996.tb00112.x .

Hoegh-Guldberg, O., L. Hughes, S. McIntyre, D. Lindenmayer, C. Parmesan, H. Possingham, and C.D. Thomas. 2008. Climate change and assisted colonization. Science 321: 345–346. doi: 10.1126/science.1157897 .

Hooper, D.U., F.S. Chapin III, J.J. Ewel, A. Hector, P. Inchausti, S. Lavorel, J.H. Lawton, D. Lodge, M. Loreau, S. Naeem, B. Schmid, H. Setälä, A.J. Symstad, J. Vandermeer, and D.A. Wardle. 2005. Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: A consensus of current knowledge. Ecological Monographs 75: 3–35. doi: 10.1890/04-0922 .

Hughes, F.M.R., A. Colston, and J.O. Mountford. 2005. Restoring Riparian Ecosystems: The Challenge of Accommodating Variability and Designing Restoration Trajectories. Ecology and Society 10: 12. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol10/iss1/art12/ .

Hutchinson, G.E. 1959. Homage to Santa-Rosalia or why are there so many kinds of animals. American Naturalist 93: 145. doi: 10.1086/282070 .

Kaiser, M.J., S.I. Rogers, and J.R. Ellis. 1999. Importance of benthic habitat complexity for demersal fish assemblages in Fish habitat: essential fish habitat and rehabilitation. In American fisheries society, symposium 22, eds. Benaka, L.R., 212–223. Maryland: Bethesda.

Katz, S., K. Barnas, V.R. Hicks, J. Cowen, and R. Jenkinson. 2007. Freshwater habitat restoration actions in the Pacific Northwest: a 10-year census. Restoration Ecology 15: 506–515. doi: 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2007.00245.x .

Kaushal, S.S., P.M. Groffman, P.M. Mayer, E. Striz, E.J. Doheny, and A.J. Gold. 2008. Effects of stream restoration on denitrification at the riparian-stream interface of an urbanizing watershed of the mid-Atlantic U.S. Ecological Applications 18: 789–804. doi: 10.1890/07-1159.1 .

Keitt, T.H. 2008. Coherent ecological dynamics induced by large-scale disturbance. Nature 454: 331–334. doi: 10.1038/nature06935 .

Kondolf, M. 2006. River restoration and meanders. Ecology and Society 11(2): 42. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss2/art42/ .

Lake, P.S., N. Bond, and P. Reich. 2007. Linking ecological theory with stream restoration. Freshwater Biology 52: 597–615. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2427.2006.01709.x .

Larkin, D.J., G. Vivian-Smith, and J.B. Zedler. 2006. Topographic heterogeneity theory and ecological restoration. In Foundations of restoration ecology, eds. Falk, D.A., M.A. Palmer, and J.B. Zedler, 142–164. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Larkin, D.J., S.P. Madon, J.M. West, and J.B. Zedler. 2008. Topographic heterogeneity influences fish use of an experimentally restored tidal marsh. Ecological Applications 18: 483–496. doi: 10.1890/06-1984.1 .

Lepori, F., D. Palm, E. Brannas, and B. Malmqvist. 2005. Does restoration of structural heterogeneity in streams enhance fish and macroinvertebrate diversity? Ecological Applications 15: 2060–2071. doi: 10.1890/04-1372 .

Leslie, H.M., and K.L. McLeod. 2007. Confronting the challenges of implementing marine ecosystem-based management. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5: 540–548. doi: 10.1890/060093 .

Lewontin, R.C. 1969. The meaning of stability. Brookhaven Symposium in Biology 22: 13–23.

Li, H., and J.F. Reynolds. 1995. On definition and quantification of heterogeneity. Oikos 73: 280–284. doi: 10.2307/3545921 .

Liu, J.G., T. Dietz, S.R. Carpenter, M. Alberti, C. Folke, E. Moran, A.N. Pell, P. Deadman, et al. 2007. Complexity of coupled human and natural systems. Science 317: 1513–1516. doi: 10.1126/science.1144004 .

Loreau, M., and N. Behera. 1999. Phenotypic diversity and stability of ecosystem processes. Theoretical Population Biology 56: 29–47. doi: 10.1006/tpbi.1998.1408 .

Lotze, H.K., H.S. Lenihan, B.J. Bourque, R.H. Bradbury, R.G. Cooke, M.C. Kay, S.M. Kidwell, M.X. Kirby, C.H. Peterson, and J.B.C. Jackson. 2006. Depletion, degradation, and recovery potential of estuaries and coastal seas. Science 312: 1806–1809. doi: 10.1126/science.1128035 .

Lowe, A., S. Harris, and P. Ashton. 2004. Ecological genetics: design, analysis, and application. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Luckenbach, M.W., M.R. Mann, and J.A. Wesson. 1999. Oyster reef habitat restoration: a synopsis and synthesis of approaches. Proceedings from the symposium, Williamsburg, VA. Virginia Institute of Marine Science Press, Gloucester Point, VA.

MacArthur, R.H., and J.W. MacArthur. 1961. On bird species diversity. Ecology 42: 595–599.

MacArthur, R.H., and E.O. Wilson. 1967. The theory of island biogeography. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

Machado-Schiaffino, G., E. Dopico, and E. Garcia-Vazquez. 2007. Genetic variation losses in Atlantic salmon stocks created for supportive breeding. Aquaculture 264: 59–65. doi: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2006.12.026 .

MacNally, R., and D.M. Watson. 2006. Distinguishing area and habitat heterogeneity effects on species richness: birds in Victorian buloke remnants. Australia Ecology 22: 227–232.

Mann, R., and E.N. Powell. 2007. Why oyster restoration goals in the Chesapeake Bay are not and probably cannot be achieved. Journal of Shellfish Research 26: 905–917. doi: 10.2983/0730-8000(2007)26[905:WORGIT]2.0.CO;2 .

Maryland Department of the Environment (MDE). 2004. List of Impaired Surface Waters [303(d) List] and Integrated Assessment of Water Quality in Maryland. http://www.mde.state.md.us/assets/document/Cover_TableofContents_2004-303d_Final.pdf . Accessed November 4, 2008.

Maschinski, J., and S.J. Wright. 2006. Using ecological theory to plan restorations of the endangered Beach jacquemontia (Convolvulaceae) in fragmented habitats. Journal for Nature Conservation 14: 180–189. doi: 10.1016/j.jnc.2006.05.003 .

Mathews, J.W., and A.G. Endress. 2008. Performance criteria, compliance success, and vegetation development in compensatory mitigation wetlands. Environmental Management 41: 130–141. doi: 10.1007/s00267-007-9002-5 .

Matthaei, C.D., W. Florian, D.W. Kely, and C.R. Townsend. 2006. Impacts of fine sediment addition to tussock, pasture, dairy and deer farming streams in New Zealand. Freshwater Biology 51: 2154–2172. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2427.2006.01643.x .

May, R., and A. McLean (editors). 2007. Theoretical ecology: principles and applications. Oxford University Press, 251 pp.

Mayer, A.L., and M. Rietkerk. 2004. The dynamic regime concept for ecosystem management and restoration. BioScience 54: 1013–1020. doi: 10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[1013:TDRCFE]2.0.CO;2 .

McCann, K.S. 2000. The diversity-stability debate. Nature 405: 228–233. doi: 10.1038/35012234 .

McCarthy, M.A., C.J. Thompson, and H.P. Possingham. 2005. Theory for designing nature reserves for single species. American Naturalist 165: 250–257. doi: 10.1086/427297 .

McGlade, J.M. 1999. Advanced ecological theory: principles and applications. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 353 pp.

Montgomery, D.R. 2008. Dreams of natural streams. Science 319: 291–192. doi: 10.1126/science.1153480 .

Mouquet, N., and M. Loreau. 2003. Community patterns in source-sink metacommunities. American Naturalist 162: 544–557. doi: 10.1086/378857 .

Murdoch, W.W., F.C. Evans, and C.H. Peterson. 1972. Diversity and pattern in plants and insects. Ecology 53: 819–829. doi: 10.2307/1934297 .

Naeem, S. 2006. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in restored ecosystems: extracting principles for a synthetic perspective. In Foundations of restoration ecology, eds. Falk, D., M. Palmer, and J. Zedler, 219-237. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Naeem, S., L.J. Thompson, S.P. Lawler, J.H. Lawton, and R.M. Woodfin. 1994. Declining biodiversity can alter the performance of ecosystems. Nature 368: 734–737. doi: 10.1038/368734a0 .

Nakano, S., and M. Murakami. 2001. Reciprocal subsidies: dynamic interdependence between terrestrial and aquatic food webs. Proceedings of the National Academies of Science 98: 166–170. doi: 10.1073/pnas.98.1.166 .

Nelson, K.A., L.A. Leonard, M.H. Posey, T.D. Alphin, and M.A. Mallin. 2004. Using transplanted oyster (Crassostrea virginica) beds to improve water quality in small tidal creeks: a pilot study. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 298: 347–368. doi: 10.1016/S0022-0981(03)00367-8 .

Palmer, M.A., and E.S. Bernhardt. 2006. Hydroecology and river restoration: ripe for research and synthesis. Water Resources Research 42: W03S07. doi: 10.1029/2005WR004354 .

Palmer, M.A., R. Ambrose, and N.L. Poff. 1997. Ecological theory and community restoration ecology. Restoration Ecology 5: 291–300. doi: 10.1046/j.1526-100X.1997.00543.x .

Palmer, M.A., E. Bernhardt, E. Chornesky, S. Collins, A. Dobson, C. Duke, B. Gold, R. Jacobson, S. Kingsland, R. Kranz, M. Mappin, M.L. Martinez, F. Micheli, J. Morse, M. Pace, M. Pascual, S. Palumbi, O.J. Reichman, A. Simons, A. Townsend, and M. Turner. 2004. Ecology for a crowded planet. Science 304: 1251–1252. doi: 10.1126/science.1095780 .

Palumbi, S.R. 2003. Ecological subsidies alter the structure of marine communities. Proceedings of the National Academies of Science 100: 11927–11928. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2335832100 .

Parker, K.R., and J.A. Wiens. 2005. Assessing recovery following environmental accidents: environmental variation, ecological assumptions, and strategies. Ecological Applications 15: 2037–2051. doi: 10.1890/04-1723 .

Pimm, S.L. 1991. The balance of nature? Ecological issues in the conservation of species and communities. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Polis, G.A., and S.D. Hurd. 1996. Linking marine and terrestrial food webs: allochthonous input from the ocean supports high secondary. American Naturalist 147: 396–423. doi: 10.1086/285858 .

Poole, G.C., J.B. Dunham, U.M. Keenan, S.T. Sauter, D.A. McCullough, C. Mebane, J.C. Lockwood, D.A. Essig, M.P. Hicks, D.J. Sturdevant, E.J. Materna, S.A. Spalding, J. Risley, and M. Deppman. 2004. The case for regime-based water quality standards. Bioscience 54: 155–161. doi: 10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0155:TCFRWQ]2.0.CO;2 .

Postel, S., and B. Richter. 2003. Rivers for life: managing water for people and nature. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Power, M.E., D. Tilman, J.A. Estes, B.A. Menge, W.J. Bond, L.S. Mills, J. Daily, J.C. Castillo, J. Lubchenco, and R. Paine. 1996. Challenges in the quest for keystones. Bioscience 46: 609–620. doi: 10.2307/1312990 .

Pretty, J.L., S.S.C. Harrison, D.J. Shepherd, C. Smith, A.G. Hildrew, and R.D. Hey. 2003. River rehabilitation and fish populations: assessing the benefit of in-stream structures. Journal of Applied Ecology 40: 251–265.

Rheinhardt, R.D., M.M. Brinson, and P.M. Farley. 1997. Applying wetland reference data to functional assessment, mitigation, and restoration. Wetlands 17: 195–215.

Roberts, B.J., P.J. Mulholland, and J.N. Houser. 2008. Effects of upland disturbance and in-stream restoration on hydrodynamics and ammonium uptake in headwater streams. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 26: 38–53. doi: 10.1899/0887-3593(2007)26[38:EOUDAI]2.0.CO;2 .

Roni, P.T., J. Beechie, R.E. Bilby, F.E. Leonetti, M.M. Pollock, and G.R. Pess. 2002. A review of stream restoration techniques and a hierarchical strategy for prioritizing restoration. Pacific Northwest Watersheds North American Journal of Fisheries Management 22: 1–20.

Rosgen, D. 1996. Applied river morphology. Wildland Hydrology. Lakewood: Colorado.

Sarewitz, D., and R. Pielke Jr. 2007. The neglected heart of science policy: reconciling supply of and demand for science. Environmental Science and Policy 10: 5–16. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2006.10.001 .

Schneider, K.N., and K.O. Winemiller. 2008. Structural complexity of woody debris patches influences fish and macroinvertebrate species richness in a temperate floodplain-river system. Hydrobiologia 610: 235–244. doi: 10.1007/s10750-008-9438-5 .

Scoones, I., and C. Toulmin. 1998. Soil nutrient balances: what use for policy? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 71: 255–267. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8809(98)00145-5 .

Shurin, J.B. 2000. Dispersal limitation, invasion resistance, and the structure of pond zooplankton communities. Ecology 81: 3074–3086.

Shurin, J.B., S.E. Arnott, H. Hillebrand, A. Longmuir, B. Pinel-Alloul, M. Winder, and N.D. Yan. 2007. Diversity-stability relationship varies with latitude. Ecology Letters 10: 127–134. doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.01009.x .

Simenstad, C., D. Reed, and M. Ford. 2006. When is restoration not? Incorporating landscape-scale processes to restore self-sustaining ecosystems in coastal wetland restoration. Ecological Modelling 26: 27–39.

Sirota, L., and S.A. Hovel. 2006. Simulated eelgrass Zostera marina structural complexity: effects of shoot length, shoot density, and surface area on the epifaunal community of San Diego Bay, California, USA. Marine Ecology Progress Series 326: 115–131. doi: 10.3354/meps326115 .

Smith, R.F., and W.O. Lamp. 2008. Comparison of insect communities between adjacent headwater and main-stem streams in urban and rural watersheds. Journal of North American Benthological Society 27: 161–175. doi: 10.1899/07-071.1 .

Smith, S.M., and K.L. Prestegaard. 2005. Hydraulic performance of a morphology based stream channel design. Water Resources Research 41: W11413. doi: 10.1029/2004WR003926 .

Spänhoff, B., and J. Arle. 2007. Setting attainable goals of stream habitat restoration from a macroinvertebrate view. Restoration Ecology 15: 317–320. doi: 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2007.00216.x .

Stachowicz, J.J., J.F. Bruno, and J.E. Duffy. 2007. Understanding the effects of marine biodiversity on communities and ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 38: 739–766. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.38.091206.095659 .

Stanley, E., and M. Doyle. 2003. Trading off: the ecological effects of dam removal. Frontiers in the Ecology and Environment 1: 15–22.

Steyer, G.C., C.E. Sasser, J.M. Visser, E.M. Swenson, J.A. Nyman, and R.C. Raynie. 2003. A proposed coast-wide reference monitoring system for evaluating wetland restoration trajectories in Louisiana. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 81: 107–111. doi: 10.1023/A:1021368722681 .

Suding, K.N., and K.L. Gross. 2006. The dynamic nature of ecological systems: multiple states and restoration trajectories. In Foundation of restoration ecology, eds. Falk, D., M.A. Palmer, and J.B. Zedler, 190–209. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Suding, K.N., K.L. Gross, and G.R. Houseman. 2004. Alternative states and positive feedbacks in restoration ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19: 46–53. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2003.10.005 .

Tews, J., U. Brose, V. Grimm, K. Tielbörger, M.C. Wichmann, M. Schwager, and F. Jeltsch. 2004. Animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity/diversity: the importance of keystone structures. Journal of Biogeography 31: 79–92.

Tilman, D., D. Wedin, and J. Knops. 1996. Productivity and sustainability influenced by biodiversity in grassland ecosystems. Nature 379: 718–720. doi: 10.1038/379718a0 .

Travis, S.E., C.E. Proffitt, R.C. Lowenfeld, and T.W. Mitchell. 2002. Comparative assessment of genetic diversity among differently-aged populations of Spartina alterniflora on restored versus natural wetlands. Restoration Ecology 10: 37–42. doi: 10.1046/j.1526-100X.2002.10104.x .

Turner, M.G., and R.H. Gardner. 1991. Quantitative methods in landscape ecology. New York: Springer Verlag.

Vivian-Smith, G. 1997. Microtopographic heterogeneity and floristic diversity in experimental wetland communities. Journal of Ecology 85: 71–82. doi: 10.2307/2960628 .

Walker, B., and J.A. Meyers. 2004. Thresholds in ecological and social–ecological systems: a developing database. Ecology and Society 9(2): 3. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art3/ .

Walker, B., S. Carpenter, J. Anderies, N. Abel, G.S. Cumming, M. Janssen, L. Lebel, J. Norberg, G.D. Peterson, and R. Pritchard. 2002. Resilience management in social-ecological systems: a working hypothesis for a participatory approach. Conservation Ecology 6(1): 14. [online] URL: http://www.consecol.org/vol6/iss1/art14/ .

Walker, B., C.S. Holling, S.R. Carpenter, and A. Kinzig. 2004. Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social–ecological systems. Ecology and Society 9(2): 5. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art5/ .

Walsh, C.J., A.H. Roy, J.W. Feminella, P.D. Cottingham, P.M. Groffman, and R.P. Morgan. 2005. The urban stream syndrome: current knowledge and the search for a cure. Journal of The North American Benthological Society 24: 706–723.

Walter, R.C., and D.J. Merritts. 2008. Natural streams and the legacy of water-powered mills. Science 319: 299–304. doi: 10.1126/science.1151716 .

Weiner, J. 1995. On the practice of ecology. Journal of Ecology 83: 153–158. doi: 10.2307/2261159 .

Weller, D.E., M.N. Snyder, D.F. Whigham, A.D. Jacobs, and T.E. Jordan. 2007. Landscape indicators of wetland condition in The Nanticoke River Watershed, Maryland and Delaware, USA. Wetlands 27: 498–514. doi: 10.1672/0277-5212(2007)27[498:LIOWCI]2.0.CO;2 .

Wellnitz, T., and N.L. Poff. 2001. Functional redundancy in heterogeneous environments: implications for conservation. Ecological Letters 4: 177–179. doi: 10.1046/j.1461-0248.2001.00221.x .

White, P.S., and J.S. Walker. 1997. Approximating nature’s variation: selecting and using reference information in restoration ecology. Restoration Ecology 5: 338–349. doi: 10.1046/j.1526-100X.1997.00547.x .

Williams, S.L. 2001. Reduced genetic diversity in eelgrass transplantations affects both population growth and individual fitness. Ecological Applications 11: 1472–1488. doi: 10.1890/1051-0761(2001)011[1472:RGDIET]2.0.CO;2 .

Willis, S.C., K.O. Winemiller, and H. Lopez-Fernandez. 2005. Habitat structural complexity and morphological diversity of fish assemblages in a Neotropical floodplain river. Oecologia 142: 1432–1939. doi: 10.1007/s00442-004-1723-z .

Wu, J., and O. Loucks. 1995. From balance of nature to hierarchical patch dynamics: a paradigm shift in ecology. Annual Review of Biology 70: 439–466.

Zedler, J.B. 2000. Progress in wetland restoration ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15: 402–407. doi: 10.1016/S0169-5347(00)01959-5 .