Re-orienting crop improvement for the changing climatic conditions of the 21st century
Tóm tắt
A 70% increase in food production is required over the next four decades to feed an ever-increasing population. The inherent difficulties in achieving this unprecedented increase are exacerbated by the yield-depressing consequences of climate change and variations and by the pressures on food supply by other competing demographic and socioeconomic demands. With the dwindling or stagnant agricultural land and water resources, the sought-after increases will therefore be attained mainly through the enhancement of crop productivity under eco-efficient crop production systems. ‘Smart’ crop varieties that yield more with fewer inputs will be pivotal to success. Plant breeding must be re-oriented in order to generate these ‘smart’ crop varieties. This paper highlights some of the scientific and technological tools that ought to be the staple of all breeding programs. We also make the case that plant breeding must be enabled by adequate policies, including those that spur innovation and investments. To arrest and reverse the worrisome trend of declining capacities for crop improvement, a new generation of plant breeders must also be trained. Equally important, winning partnerships, including public-private sector synergies, are needed for 21st century plant breeding to bear fruits. We also urge the adoption of the continuum approach to the management of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture as means to improved cohesion of the components of its value chain. Compellingly also, the National Agricultural Research and Extension System of developing countries require comprehensive overhauling and strengthening as crop improvement and other interventions require a sustained platform to be effective. The development of a suite of actionable policy interventions to be packaged for assisting countries in developing result-oriented breeding programs is also called for.
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: How to Feed the World in 2050. 2009, FAO, Rome
Tester M, Langridge P: Breeding technologies to increase crop production in a changing world. Science. 2010, 327: 818-822.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture Series No. 1. FAO, Global Survey of Agricultural Mitigation Projects, Rome
Beddington J, Asaduzzaman M, Fernandez A, Clark M, Guillou M, Jahn M, Erda L, Mamo T, Van Bo N, Nobre CA, Scholes R, Sharma R, Wakhungu J: Achieving food security in the face of climate change: Summary for policy makers from the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change. 2011, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), Copenhagen
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI): Global Hunger Index: The Challenge of Hunger. Taming Price Spikes and Excessive Food Price Volatility. 2011, , Washington, DC
Evans A: The Feeding of the Nine Billion: Global Food Security for the 21st Century. 2009, Chatham House, London
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): Summary for Policymakers. Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. Edited by: Field CB, Barros V, Stocker TF, Qin D, Dokken DJ, Ebi KL, Mastrandrea MD, Mach KJ, Plattner G-K, Allen SK, Tignor M, Midgley PM. 2012, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Nelson GC, Rosegrant MW, Koo J, Robertson R, Sulser T, Zhu T, Ringler C, Msangi S, Palazzo A, Batka M, Magalhaes M, Valmonte-Santos R, Ewing M, Lee D: Food Policy Report No. 21. Climate Change: Impact on Agriculture and Costs of Adaptation. 2009, 19-International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC, USA
Hertel TW, Burke MB, Lobell DB: The poverty implications of climate-induced crop yield changes by 2030. Global Environmental Change. 2010, 20: 577-585. 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.07.001.
Rosegrant MW: Impacts of climate change on food security and livelihoods. Food security and climate change in dry areas: proceedings of an International Conference, 1-4 February 2010, Amman, Jordan. Edited by: Solh M, Saxena MC. 2011, 24-26. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo
Ejeta G: Revitalizing agricultural research for global food security. Food Sec. 2009, 1: 391-401. 10.1007/s12571-009-0045-8.
Foresight: The Future of Food and Farming: Final Project Report. 2011, The Government Office for Science, London
Fernandez-Cornejo J: Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 786. The Seed Industry in US Agriculture: An exploration of Data and Information on Crop Seed Markets, Regulation, Industry Structure, and Research and Development. 2004, 213-Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Washington DC, USA
Duvick DN: Genetic contributions to advances in yield of US maize. Maydica. 1992, 37: 69-79.
Duvick DN: Heterosis: Feeding People and Protecting Natural Resources. The Genetics and Exploitation of Heterosis in Crops. Edited by: Coors JG, Pandey S, Madison WI. 1999, American Society of Agronomy, Inc., Crop Science Society of America, Inc., Soil Science Society of America, Inc, MAdison, USA
Duvick DN: Genetic Progress in Yield of United States Maize (Zea mays L.). Maydica. 2005, 50: 193-202.
Dalton TJ, Guei RG: Productivity gains from rice genetic enhancements in West Africa: countries and ecologies. World Development. 2003, 31: 359-374. 10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00189-4.
Diagne A: Diffusion and adoption of NERICA rice varieties in Côte d’Ivoire. The Developing Economies. 2006, XLIV-2: 208-231.
Oikeh SO, Nwilene F, Diatta S, Osiname O, Touré A, Okeleye KA: Responses of upland NERICA rice to nitrogen and phosphorus in forest agroecosystems. Agron J. 2008, 100: 735-741. 10.2134/agronj2007.0212.
Wopereis MCS, Diagne A, Rodenburg J, Sié M, Somado EA: Why NERICA is a successful innovation for African farmers. Outlook on Agriculture. 2008, 37: 169-176. 10.5367/000000008785915502.
The Columbia Encyclopedia: Sixth ednth editionNew York, NY: ColumbiaUniversity Press; 2008http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/plant_breeding.aspx
World Economic Forum: Realizing a New Vision for Agriculture: A roadmap for stakeholders. 2010, World Economic Forum, Geneva
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Save and Grow - A Policy Maker’s Guide to the Sustainable Intensification of Smallholder Crop Production. 2011, FAO, Rome
Waines GJ, Ehdaie B: Domestication and crop physiology: roots of green-revolution wheat. Annals of Botany. 2007, 100: 991-998.
Martynov SP, Dobrotvorskaya TV: Genealogical analysis of diversity of Russian winter wheat cultivars (Triticum aestivum L.). Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 2006, 53: 386-386.
Rabinovich SV: Importance of wheat-rye translocations for breeding modern cultivars of Triticum aestivum L. Euphytica. 1998, 100: 323-340. 10.1023/A:1018361819215.
Gur A, Zamir D: Unused natural variation can lift yield barriers in plant breeding. PLoS Biol. 2004, 2: 1610-1615.
Hahn SK, Terry ER, Leuschner K: Breeding cassava for resistance to cassava mosaic disease. Euphytica. 1980, 29: 673-683. 10.1007/BF00023215.
Akano AO, Dixon AGO, Mba C, Barrera E, Fregene M: Genetic mapping of a dominant gene conferring resistance to the cassava mosaic disease (CMD). Theor Appl Genet. 2002, 105: 521-525.
Fregene M, Matsumura H, Akano A, Dixon A, Terauchi R: Serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) of host-plant resistance to the cassava mosaic disease (CMD). Plant Molecular Biology. 2004, 56: 563-571.
Chavez AL, Sanchez T, Jaramillo G, Bedoya JM, Echeverry J, Bolanos EA, Ceballos H, Iglesias CA: Variation of quality traits in cassava roots evaluated in landraces and improved clones. Euphytica. 2005, 143: 125-133. 10.1007/s10681-005-3057-2.
Blair MW, Fregene MA, Beebe SE, Ceballos H: Marker-assisted selection in common beans and cassava. Marker-assisted selection: Current status and future perspectives in crops, livestock, forestry and fish. Edited by: Guimaraes EP, Ruane J, Scherf BD, Sonnino A, Dargie JD. 2007, 81-115. FAO, Rome
Maxted N: Ford-Lloyd BV, Kell SP, Iriondo JM, Dulloo ME, Turok J (eds): Crop Wild Relative Conservation and Use. 2008, CABI Publishing, Wallingford
The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture,http://www.planttreaty.org/
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. 2009, FAO, Rome
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Second Report on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. 2010, FAO, Rome
The Global Crop Diversity Trust,http://www.croptrust.org/main/
Pre-breeding for Effective Use of Plant Genetic Resources.http://km.fao.org/gipb/,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Pre-breeding for effective use of plant genetic resources: an e-Learning Course. 2011, FAO, Rome
Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building (GIPB),http://km.fao.org/gipb/
The FAO Global System on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture,http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/core-themes/theme/seeds-pgr/gpa/gsystem/es/
The World Information and Early Warning System of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (WIEWS),http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/wiews.jsp
The World Information Sharing Mechanism on the Implementation of the Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.http://www.pgrfa.org/gpa/selectcountry.jspx,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Second Global Plan of Action on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. 2011, FAO, Rome
Maluszynski M, Nichterlein K, Van Zanten L, Ahloowalia BS: Officially Released Mutant Varieties - The FAO/IAEA Database. 2000, 84-International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna
Ahloowalia BS, Maluszynski M, Nichterlein K: Global impact of mutation-derived varieties. Euphytica. 2004, 135: 187-204.
Shu QY: Proceedings of International Symposium on Induced Mutations in Plants: Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics Era: 11-15 August 2008; Vienna, Austria. 2009, FAO, Rome
The Joint FAO/IAEA Mutant Varieties and Genetic Stocks Database,http://mvgs.iaea.org/AboutMutantVarieties.aspx
McCallum CM, Comai L, Greene EA, Henikoff S: Targeting induced local lesions IN genomes (TILLING) for plant functional genomics. Plant Physiol. 2000, 123: 439-442.
Colbert T, Till BJ, Tompa R, Reynolds S, Steine MN, Yeung AT, McCallum CM, Comai L, Henikoff S: High-throughput screening for induced point mutations. Plant Physiol. 2001, 126: 480-484.
Greene EA, Codomo CA, Taylor NE, Henikoff JG, Till BJ, Reynolds SH, Enns LC, Burtner C, Johnson JE, Odden AR, Comai L, Henikoff S: Spectrum of chemically induced mutations from a large-scale reverse-genetic screen in Arabidopsis. Genetics. 2003, 164: 731-740.
Caldwell DG, McCallum N, Shaw P, Muehlbauer GJ, Marshall DF, Waugh R: A structured mutant population for forward and reverse genetics in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Plant J. 2004, 40: 143-150.
Till BJ, Reynolds SH, Weil C, Springer N, Burtner C, Young K, Bowers E, Codomo CA, Enns LC, Odden AR, Greene EA, Comai L, Henikoff S: Discovery of induced point mutations in maize genes by TILLING. BMC Plant Biol. 2004, 4: 12-
Triques K, Sturbois B, Gallais S, Dalmais M, Chauvin S, Clepet C, Aubourg S, Rameau C, Caboche M, Bendahmane A: Characterization of Arabidopsis thaliana mismatch specific endonucleases: application to mutation discovery by TILLING in pea. Plant J. 2007, 51: 1116-25.
Till BJ, Cooper J, Tai TH, Colowit P, Greene EA, Henikoff S, Comai L: Discovery of chemically induced mutations in rice by TILLING. BMC Plant Biol. 2007, 7: 19-
Slade AJ, Fuerstenberg SI, Loeffler D, Steine MN, Facciotti D: A reverse genetic, nontransgenic approach to wheat crop improvement by TILLING. Nat Biotechnol. 2005, 23: 75-81.
Sato Y, Shirasawa K, Takahashi Y, Nishimura M, Nishio T: Mutant selection from progeny of gamma-ray-irradiated rice by DNA heteroduplex cleavage using Brassica petiole extract. Breeding Science. 2006, 56: 179-183. 10.1270/jsbbs.56.179.
Cooper JL, Till BJ, Laport RG, Darlow MC, Kleffner JM, Jamai A, El-Mellouki T, Liu S, Ritchie R, Nielsen N, Bilyeu KD, Meksem K, Comai L, Henikoff S: TILLING to detect induced mutations in soybean. BMC Plant Biology. 2008, 8: 9-
Suzuki T, Eiguchi M, Kumamaru T, Satoh H, Matsusaka H, Moriguchi K, Nagato Y, Kurata N: MNU-induced mutant pools and high performance TILLING enable finding of any gene mutation in rice. Mol Genet Genomics. 2008, 279: 213-223.
Tadele Z, Mba C, Till BJ: TILLING for mutations in model plants and crops. Molecular Techniques in Crop Improvement. Edited by: Jain SM, Brar DS. 2009, 307-322. Springer Publishing, Inc, Dordrecht, 2
Till BJ, Afza R, Bado S, Huynh OA, Jankowicz-Cieslak J, Matijevic M, Mba C: Global TILLING Projects. Proceedings of International Symposium on Induced Mutations in Plants: Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics Era: 11-15 August 2008. Edited by: Shu QY. 2009, 237-239. FAO, Rome
Forster BP, Heberle-Bors E, Kasha KJ, Touraev A: The resurgence of haploids in higher plants. Trends Plant Sci. 2007, 12: 368-375.
Szarejko I, Forster BP: Doubled haploidy and induced mutation. Euphytica. 2007, 158: 359-370. 10.1007/s10681-006-9241-1.
Mba C, Afza R, Jankowicz-Cieslak J, Bado S, Matijevic M, Huynh A, Till BJ: Enhancing genetic diversity through induced mutagenesis in vegetatively propagated plants. Proceedings of International Symposium on Induced Mutations in Plants: Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics Era: 11-15 August 2008. Edited by: Shu QY. 2009, 293-296. FAO, Rome
Sperling L, Ashby JA, Smith ME, Weltzien E, McGuire S: A framework for analyzing participatory plant breeding approaches and results. Euphytica. 2001, 122: 439-450. 10.1023/A:1017505323730.
Ashby JA: The Impact of Participatory Plant Breeding. Plant Breeding and Farmer Participation. Edited by: Ceccarelli S, Guimaraes EP, Weltzien E. 2009, 649-671. FAO, Rome
Efisue A, Tongoona P, Derera J, Langyintuo A, Laing M, Ubi B: Farmers’ perceptions on rice varieties in Sikasso region of Mali and their implications for rice breeding. J Agronomy & Crop Science. 2008, 194: 393-400.
Witcombe JR, Joshi A, Joshi KD, Sthapit BR: Farmer participatory crop improvement. I. Varietal selection and breeding methods and their impact on biodiversity. Experimental Agriculture. 1996, 32: 445-460. 10.1017/S0014479700001526.
Technical Advisory Committee of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (TAC):Systemwide Review of Breeding Methodologies in the CGIAR. 2001, Science Council of the CGIAR
Suslow TV, Thomas B, Bradford KJ: Biotechnology provides new tools for plant breeding. 2002, 19-Seed Biotechnology Center, University of California Davis, Davis, CA
Moose SP, Mumm RH: Molecular plant breeding as the foundation for 21st century crop improvement. Plant Physiology. 2008, 147: 969-977.
Stam P, : Eucarpia Leafy Vegetables 2003: Proceedings of the EUCARPIA Meeting on Leafy Vegetables Genetics and Breeding: 19-21 March 2003. Edited by: Hintum TJL, Lebeda A, Pink D, Schut JW. 2003, 117-124. Centre for Genetic Resources (CGN), Wageningen
Burstin J, Charcosset A: Relationship between phenotypic and marker distances: theoretical and experimental investigations. Heredity. 1997, 79: 477-483. 10.1038/hdy.1997.187.
Spelman RJ, Bovenhuis H: Moving from QTL experimental results to the utilization of QTL in breeding programmes. Animal Genetics. 1998, 29: 77-84.
Hospital F, Moreau L, Lacourde F, Charcosset A, Gallais A: More on the efficiency of marker-assisted selection. Theor Appl Genet. 1997, 95: 1181-1189. 10.1007/s001220050679.
Hospital F, Charcosset A: Marker-assisted introgression of quantitative loci. Genetics. 1997, 147: 1469-1485.
Tanksley SD, McCouch SR: Seed banks and molecular maps: Unlocking genetic potential from the wild. Science. 1997, 277: 1063-1066.
Bernacchi D, Beck-Bunn T, Emmatty D, Inai S: Advanced backcross QTL analysis of tomato II. Evaluation of near-isogenic lines carrying single-donor introgressions for desireable wild QTL alleles derived from Lycopersicon hirsutum and L. pimpinellifolium. Theor Appl Genet. 1998, 97: 170-180. 10.1007/s001220050882.
Bernacchi D, Beck-Bunn T, Eshed Y, Lopez J, Petiard V, Uhlig J, Zamir D, Tanksley S: Advanced backcross QTL analysis in tomato I. Identification of QTLs for traits of agronomic importance from Lycopersicon hirsutum. Theor Appl Genet. 1998, 97: 381-397. 10.1007/s001220050908.
Stuber CW, Polacco M, Senior ML: Synergy of Empirical breeding, marker-assisted selection, and genomics to increase crop yield potential. Crop Sci. 1999, 39: 1571-1583. 10.2135/cropsci1999.3961571x.
Moreau L, Lemarie S, Charcosset A, Gallais A: Economic efficiency of one cycle of marker-assisted selection. Crop Sci. 2000, 40: 329-337. 10.2135/cropsci2000.402329x.
Meuwissen THE, Hayes BJ, Goddard ME: Prediction of total genetic value using genome-wide dense marker maps. Genetics. 2001, 157: 1819-1829.
Charcosset A, Moreau L: Use of molecular markers for the development of new cultivars and the evaluation of genetic diversity. Euphytica. 2004, 137: 81-94.
Lecomte L, Duffé P, Buret M, Servin B, Hospital F, Causse M: Marker-assisted introgression of five QTLs controlling fruit quality traits into three tomato lines revealed interactions between QTLs and genetic backgrounds. Theor Appl Genet. 2004, 109: 658-668.
Collard BCY, Jahufer MZZ, Brouwer JB, Pang ECK: An introduction to markers, Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping and marker-assisted selection for crop improvement: The basic concepts. Euphytica. 2005, 142: 169-196. 10.1007/s10681-005-1681-5.
Tuberosa R, Salvi S: Genomics-based approaches to improve drought tolerance of crops. TRENDS in Plant Science. 2006, 11: 405-412.
Brady SM, Provart NJ: Extreme breeding: Leveraging genomics for crop improvement. J Sci Food Agric. 2007, 87: 925-929. 10.1002/jsfa.2763.
Ribaut J-M, Ragot M: Marker-assisted selection to improve drought adaptation in maize: the backcross approach, perspectives, limitations, and alternatives. J Exp Bot. 2007, 58: 351-360.
Collard BCY, Mackill DJ: Marker-assisted selection: an approach for precision plant breeding in the twenty-first century. Phil Trans R Soc B. 2008, 363: 557-572.
Choudhary K, Choudhary OP, Shekhawat NS: Marker assisted selection: a novel approach for crop improvement. American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy. 2008, 1: 26-30.
Eathington SR, Crosbie TM, Reiter RS, Bull JK: Molecular markers in a commercial breeding program. Crop Sci. 2007, (Suppl 3): S154-S163.
Pioneer Hi-Bred.http://www.pioneer.com/home/site/about/research/plant-breeding/
Syngenta,http://www.syngentafoundation.org/index.cfm?pageID
Thro AM, Parrott W, Udall JA, Beavis WD: Proceedings of the Symposium on Genomics and Plant Breeding: The Experience of the Initiative for Future Agricultural and Food Systems: 13 November 2002. 2004, 1893-1919. Crop Science Society of America; 2004, Crop Sci, Indianapolis, IN, USA
Ikeda N, Bautista NS, Yamada T, Kamijima O, Ishii T: Ultra-simple DNA extraction method for marker-assisted selection using microsatellite markers in rice. Plant Molecular Biology Reporter. 2001, 19: 27-32. 10.1007/BF02824075.
The Integrated Breeding Platform of the Generation Challenge Program of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research.http://www.generationcp.org/ibp,
James C: Executive Summary Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2011. ISAAA Brief 2011. 2011, 30-ISAAA, Ithaca, NY
Glover D: Monsanto and smallholder farmers: A case-study on corporate accountability. IDS Working Paper 277. 2007, 53-University of Sussex, UK, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton
Glover D: Made by Monsanto: The corporate shaping of GM crops as a technology for the poor. STEPS Working Paper 11. 2008, 45-STEPS Centre, Brighton
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity. 1992, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal
The African Agricultural Technology Foundation,http://www.aatf-africa.org/
Boadi RY, Bokanga M, : The African Agricultural Technology Foundation Approach to IP Management. Intellectual Property Management in Health and Agricultural Innovation: A Handbook of Best Practices. Edited by: Krattiger A, Mahoney RT, Nelsen L, Thomson JA, Bennett AB, Satyanarayana K, Graff GD, Fernandez C, Kowalski SP. Davis, CA, USA: PIPRA; Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Oswaldo Cruz Foundation; 2007:1765-1774, MIHR, Ithaca, NY, USA
Atkinson RC, Beachy RN, Conway G, Cordova FA, Fox MA, Holbrook KA, Klessig DF, McCormick RL, McPherson PM, Rawlings HR, Rapson R, Vanderhoef LN, Wiley JD, Young CE: Public sector collaboration for agricultural IP management. Science. 2003, 301: 174-175.
Delmer DP, Nottenburg C, Graff GD, Bennett AB: Intellectual property resources for international development in agriculture. Plant Physiology. 2003, 133: 1666-1670.
Lusser M, Parisi C, Plan D, Rodríguez-Cerezo E: New plant breeding techniques. 2011, Publications Office of the European Union, State-of-the-art and prospects for commercial development. Luxembourg
Blakeney M: Patenting of plant varieties and plant breeding methods. J Exp Bot. 2012, 63: 1069-1074.
Xu Y, Crouch JH: Marker-assisted selection in plant breeding: from publications to practice. Crop Sci. 2008, 48: 391-407. 10.2135/cropsci2007.04.0191.
Houle D, Govindaraju DR, Omholt S: Phenomics: the next challenge. Nature Reviews Genetics. 2010, 11: 855-866.
Finkel E: With ‘Phenomics’, plant scientists hope to shift breeding into overdrive. Science. 2009, 325: 380-381.
The Australian Plant Phenomics Facility,http://www.plantphenomics.org.au/
Lemna Tec,http://www.lemnatec.com/
Jülich Plant Phenotyping Centre,http://www2.fz-juelich.de/icg/icg-3/jppc
Ecotron.http://www.ecotron.cnrs.fr/,
The Ecophysiology Laboratory of Plant under Environmental Stress:,http://www1.montpellier.inra.fr/ibip/lepse/english/
The Biotron Experimental Climate Change Research Centre,http://www.thebiotron.ca/
Mba C, Guimaraes EP, Guei GR, Hershey C, Paganini M, Pick B, Ghosh K: Mainstreaming the continuum approach to the management of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture through national strategy. Plant Genetic Resources. 2011, 10.1017/S1479262111000943.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Crop Improvement for the 21st Century. 2012, FAO; Information Document for 23rd Session of the Committee on Agriculture, Rome
Anthony VM, Ferroni M: Agricultural biotechnology and smallholder farmers in developing countries. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2011, 23: 1-8.
Ferroni M, Castle P: Public-private partnerships and sustainable agricultural development. Sustainability. 2011, 3: 1064-1073. 10.3390/su3071064.
Plant Breeding and Related Biotechnology Capacity Assessment.http://gipb.fao.org/Web-FAO-PBBC/index.cfm?where,
Plant Breeding Studies.http://km.fao.org/gipb/capacity-assessments/country-case-studies/en/,
Guimaraes EP, Kueneman E, Carena MJ: Assessment of national plant breeding and biotechnology capacity in Africa and recommendations for future capacity building. HortScience. 2006, 41: 50-52.
Bliss FA: Education and preparation of plant breeders for careers in global crop improvement. Crop Sci. 2007, 47: S250-S261.
Gepts P, Hancock J: The future of plant breeding. Crop Sci. 2006, 46: 1630-1634. 10.2135/cropsci2005-12-0497op.
Repinski SL, Hayes KN, Miller JK, Trexler CJ, Bliss FA: Plant Breeding Graduate Education: Opinions about Critical Knowledge, Experience, and Skill Requirements from Public and Private Stakeholders Worldwide. Crop Sci. 2011, 2011: 2325-2336.
Guner N, Wehner TC: Survey of U.S. land-grant universities for training of plant breeding students. Crop Sci. 2003, 43: 1938-1944. 10.2135/cropsci2003.1938.
Knight J: A Dying Breed. Nature. 2003, 421: 568-570.
Morris M, Edmeades G, Pehu E: The global need for plant breeding capacity: What roles for the public and private sectors?. HortScience. 2006, 41: 30-39.
Ransom C, Particka C, Ando K, Olmstead J: Report of breakout group 1. What kind of training do plant breeders need, and how can we most effectively provide that training?. HortScience. 2006, 41: 53-54.
Weebadde C, Mensah C: Report of breakout group 2. How will we provide improved varieties of specialty, minor and subsistence crops in the future?. HortScience. 2006, 41: 55-
Terpstra K, Oraby H, Vallejo V: Report of breakout group 3. How can the public and private sectors most effectively partner to train new generations of plant breeders?. HortScience. 2006, 41: 56-
The African Centre for Crop Improvement,http://www.acci.org.za/main.asp?nav
The West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement,http://www.wacci.edu.gh/index.html