REVIEW: Reducing the ecological consequences of night‐time light pollution: options and developments
Tóm tắt
Much concern has been expressed about the ecological consequences of night‐time light pollution. This concern is most often focused on the encroachment of artificial light into previously unlit areas of the night‐time environment, but changes in the spectral composition, duration and spatial pattern of light are also recognized as having ecological effects. Here, we examine the potential consequences for organisms of five management options to reduce night‐time light pollution. These are to (i) prevent areas from being artificially lit; (ii) limit the duration of lighting; (iii) reduce the ‘trespass’ of lighting into areas that are not intended to be lit (including the night sky); (iv) change the intensity of lighting; and (v) change the spectral composition of lighting. Maintaining and increasing natural unlit areas is likely to be the most effective option for reducing the ecological effects of lighting. However, this will often conflict with other social and economic objectives. Decreasing the duration of lighting will reduce energy costs and carbon emissions, but is unlikely to alleviate many impacts on nocturnal and crepuscular animals, as peak times of demand for lighting frequently coincide with those in the activities of these species. Reducing the trespass of lighting will maintain heterogeneity even in otherwise well‐lit areas, providing dark refuges that mobile animals can exploit. Decreasing the intensity of lighting will reduce energy consumption and limit both skyglow and the area impacted by high‐intensity direct light. Shifts towards ‘whiter’ light are likely to increase the potential range of environmental impacts as light is emitted across a broader range of wavelengths.
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Aubrecht C., 2010, Global Assessment of the Light Pollution Impact on Protected Areas
Bruce‐White C., 2011, A Review of the Impact of Artificial Light on Invertebrates
Cathey H.M., 1975, Effectiveness of five vision‐lighting sources on photo‐regulation of 22 species of ornamental plants, Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 100, 65, 10.21273/JASHS.100.1.65
Cathey H.M., 1975, Security lighting and its impact on the landscape, Journal of Arboriculture, 1, 181
Devon County Council, 2011, Street Lighting for Devon
E‐Street, 2007, Guide for Energy Efficient Street Lighting Installations
Gloucestershire County Council(2011)Part night light and street light dimming.http://www.gloucestershire.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=22037.
Hampshire County Council, 2010, Street Lighting: Policy Document
Highways Agency, 2011, Midnight Switch‐off for Motorway Lighting
Hunt S., 2001, Is the ultraviolet waveband a special communication channel in avian mate choice?, Journal of Experimental Biology, 204, 2499, 10.1242/jeb.204.14.2499
International Dark‐Sky Association, 2010, Visibility, Environmental and Astronomical Issues Associated with Blue‐Rich White Outdoor Lighting
International Energy Agency, 2006, Light's Labour's Lost: Policies for Energy‐Efficient Lighting, 10.1787/9789264109520-en
Knight A.L., 1994, Diurnal patterns of adult activity of four orchard pests (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) measured by timing trap and actograph, Journal of Agricultural Entomology, 11, 125
Land M.F., 1969, Structure of the retinae of the principal eyes of jumping spiders (Salticidae: Dendryphantinae) in relation to visual optics, Journal of Experimental Biology, 51, 443, 10.1242/jeb.51.2.443
Land M.F., 2002, Animal Eyes
Leicester County Council(2011)Dimming of street lights.http://www.leics.gov.uk/index/highways/road_pathway_maintenance/street_lighting/dimming_street_lighting.htm.
Lockwood R.(2011)A review of local authority road lighting initiatives aimed at reducing costs carbon emissions and light pollution.http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/quality/noise/artificial-light-pollution/.
Moore M.V., 2000, Urban light pollution alters the diel vertical migration of Daphnia, Verhandlungen des Internationalen Verein Limnologie, 27, 1
National Park Service, 2007, Natural Lightscapes Monitoring and Data
Negro J.J., 2000, Nocturnal activity of lesser kestrels under artificial lighting conditions in Seville, Spain, Journal of Raptor Research, 34, 327
Raine H., 2007, Light Pollution and its Effect on Yelkouan Shearwaters in Malta; Causes and Solutions
Rich C., 2006, Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting
Rydell J., 1991, Seasonal use of illuminated areas by foraging northern bats Eptesicus nilssoni, Holarctic Ecology, 14, 203
The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 2009, Artificial Light in the Environment
de Villiers M.S., 2005, Conservation management at southern ocean islands: towards the development of best‐practice guidelines, Polarforschung, 75, 113
Warrant E., 2006, Invertebrate Vision, 83
Warrant E., 1999, Physiological optics in the hummingbird hawkmoth: a compound eye without ommatidia, Journal of Experimental Biology, 202, 497, 10.1242/jeb.202.5.497
Williams G.(2009)Cornwall Future Lighting Strategy Factsheet.http://www.google.co.uk/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=cornwall+future+lighting+strategy&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&redir_esc=&ei=ggqwToubNoKX8QPF1pzGAQ.
Witherington B.E., 1992, Behavioral responses of nesting sea turtles to artificial lighting, Herpetologica, 48, 31