Sự kích thích tâm sinh lý và sự thiên lệch trong nhận thức các triệu chứng lo âu thể chất ở trẻ em và thanh thiếu niên mắc chứng lo âu xã hội: một tổng quan hệ thống

Julia Siess1, Jens Blechert2, Julian Schmitz1
1Department for Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
2Department of Clinical Psychology, Psychotherapy, and Health Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria

Tóm tắt

Các mô hình nhận thức về chứng lo âu xã hội [Clark và Wells, Lo âu xã hội: Chẩn đoán, đánh giá và điều trị, Nhà xuất bản Guilford, New York, 1995], tiêu chí chẩn đoán và nghiên cứu trên mẫu người lớn cho thấy cả việc đánh giá quá mức các triệu chứng lo âu thể chất và những bất thường tâm sinh lý đều đóng vai trò quan trọng trong chứng lo âu xã hội. Đến nay, ít có thông tin về thiên lệch nhận thức này và các đặc điểm sinh lý ở trẻ em và thanh thiếu niên mắc chứng lo âu xã hội. Chúng tôi đã tiến hành một tổng quan hệ thống tài liệu trong các cơ sở dữ liệu điện tử Medline, PsycINFO và PSYNDEX. Các nghiên cứu bổ sung đã được xác định bằng cách tìm kiếm thủ công theo phương pháp tổ tiên. Chúng tôi đã xác định được 1.461 nghiên cứu, kiểm tra tiêu đề và tóm tắt của chúng, xem 94 bài báo và bao gồm 28 bài trong số đó. Mẫu nghiên cứu không đồng nhất và bao gồm trẻ em và thanh thiếu niên mắc chứng sợ xã hội, lo âu xã hội cao, nhút nhát và lo âu trong kỳ thi. Về nhận thức thiên lệch, hầu hết các nghiên cứu trong tổng quan cho thấy rằng các triệu chứng thể chất của lo âu đã bị đánh giá quá mức bởi trẻ em và thanh thiếu niên trong toàn bộ phổ lo âu xã hội so với các nhóm đối chứng. Một phản ứng tâm sinh lý gia tăng với căng thẳng xã hội có mặt trong các mẫu có lo âu xã hội cao, nhút nhát và lo âu trong kỳ thi. Trong các mẫu lâm sàng mắc chứng sợ xã hội, ngược lại, không có sự khác biệt hoặc thậm chí giảm hơn về phản ứng sinh lý so với các nhóm đối chứng khỏe mạnh. Ngoài ra, một số bằng chứng về sự kích thích tâm sinh lý mạn tính đã được tìm thấy trong tất cả các loại mẫu. Các kết quả được thảo luận liên quan đến các mô hình hiện tại về lo âu xã hội, các lý thuyết tâm sinh lý, và các hệ quả điều trị.

Từ khóa

#lo âu xã hội #trẻ em #thanh thiếu niên #thiên lệch nhận thức #triệu chứng thể chất #tâm sinh lý #phản ứng sinh lý

Tài liệu tham khảo

Clark DM, Wells A (1995) A cognitive model of social phobia. In: Heimberg RG, Liebowitz MR, Hope DA et al. (eds) Social phobia: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment. Guilford Press, NY, pp 69–93

Albano AM, Chorpita BF, Barlow DH (2003) Childhood anxiety disorders. In: Mash EJ, Barkley RA et al. (eds) Child psychopathology (2nd ed.). Guilford Press, NY, pp 279–329

Cartwright-Hatton S, Hodges L, Porter J (2003) Social anxiety in childhood: the relationship with self and observer rated social skills. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 44(5):737–742

La Greca AM, Lopez N (1998) Social anxiety among adolescents: linkages with peer relations and friendships. J Abnorm Child Psychol 26(2):83–94

Bittner A, Egger HL, Erkanli A et al (2007) What do childhood anxiety disorders predict? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 48(12):1174–1183. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01812.x

Ruscio AM, Brown TA, Chiu WT et al (2008) Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Psychol Med 38(1):15–28. doi:10.1017/S0033291707001699

American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR, 4th edn. American Psychiatric Association, Washington

Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O et al (2005) Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62(6):593–602

Wittchen H, Fehm L (2003) Epidemiology and natural course of social fears and social phobia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 108(Suppl417):4–18

Beidel DC, Turner SM, Morris TL (1999) Psychopathology of childhood social phobia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38(6):643–650

Eckman PS, Shean GD (1997) Habituation of cognitive and physiological arousal and social anxiety. Behav Res Ther 35(12):1113–1121

Edelmann RJ, Baker SR (2002) Self-reported and actual physiological responses in social phobia. Br J Clin Psychol 41(1):1–14

Grossman P, Wilhelm FH, Kawachi I et al (2001) Gender differences in psychophysiological responses to speech stress among older social phobics: congruence and incongruence between self-evaluative and cardiovascular reactions. Psychosom Med 63(5):765–777

Mauss IB, Wilhelm FH, Gross JJ (2004) Is there less to social anxiety than meets the eye? Emotion experience, expression, and bodily responding. Cogn Emot 18(5):631–662

Mulkens S, de Jong PJ, Dobbelaar A et al (1999) Fear of blushing: fearful preoccupation irrespective of facial coloration. Behav Res Ther 37(11):1119–1128

Gerlach AL, Mourlane D, Rist F (2004) Public and private heart rate feedback in social phobia: a manipulation of anxiety visibility. Cogn Behav Ther 33(1):36–45

World Health Organization (1993) ICD-10. International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems, 10th revision. World Health Organization, Geneva

Gotthardt U, Schweiger U, Fahrenberg J et al (1995) Cortisol, ACTH, and cardiovascular response to a cognitive challenge paradigm in aging and depression. Am J Physiol 268(4 Pt 2):R865–R873

Kudielka BM, Buske-Kirschbaum A, Hellhammer DH et al (2004) HPA axis responses to laboratory psychosocial stress in healthy elderly adults, younger adults, and children: impact of age and gender. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29(1):83–98

Lenard Z, Studinger P, Mersich B et al (2004) Maturation of cardiovagal autonomic function from childhood to young adult age. Circulation 110(16):2307–2312. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000145157.07881.A3

Puliafico AC, Kendall PC (2006) Threat-related attentional bias in anxious youth: a review. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 9(3–4):162–180. doi:10.1007/s10567-006-0009-x

Muris P, Merckelbach H, van Spauwen I (2003) The emotional reasoning heuristic in children. Behav Res Ther 41(3):261–272

Garcia de Miguel B, Nutt DJ, Hood SD et al (2012) Elucidation of neurobiology of anxiety disorders in children through pharmacological challenge tests and cortisol measurements: a systematic review. J Psychopharmacol 26(4):431–442. doi:10.1177/0269881110372818

Kallen VL, Tulen JHM, Utens EMWJ et al (2008) Associations between HPA axis functioning and level of anxiety in children and adolescents with an anxiety disorder. Depress Anxiety 25(2):131–141. doi:10.1002/da.20287

Martel FL, Hayward C, Lyons DM et al (1999) Salivary cortisol levels in socially phobic adolescent girls. Depress Anxiety 10(1):25–27

Granger DA, Weisz JR, Kauneckis D (1994) Neuroendocrine reactivity, internalizing behavior problems, and control-related cognitions in clinic-referred children and adolescents. J Abnorm Psychol 103(2):267–276

Herbert JD, Hope DA, Bellack AS (1992) Validity of the distinction between generalized social phobia and avoidant personality disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 101(2):332–339

Holt CS, Heimberg RG, Hope DA (1992) Avoidant personality disorder and the generalized subtype of social phobia. J Abnorm Psychol 101(2):318–325

Cicchetti D (2006) Development and psychopathology. In: Cicchetti D, Cohen DJ (eds) Developmental psychopathology, Vol 1: Theory and method, 2nd edn. John Wiley & Sons Inc, Hoboken, pp 1–23

Rapee RM, Heimberg RG (1997) A cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia. Behav Res Ther 35(8):741–756. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00022-3

Muris P, Mayer B, Vermeulen L et al (2007) Theory-of-mind, cognitive development, and children’s interpretation of anxiety-related physical symptoms. Behav Res Ther 45(9):2121–2132

Arntz A, Rauner M, van den Hout M (1995) ‘If I feel anxious, there must be danger’: ex-consequentia reasoning in inferring danger in anxiety disorders. Behav Res Ther 33(8):917–925

Tsigos C, Chrousos GP (2002) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, neuroendocrine factors and stress. J Psychosom Res 53(4):865–871

Kaltsas GA, Chrousos GP (2007) The neuroendocrinology of stress. In: Cacioppo JT, Tassinary LG, Berntson GG et al. (eds) Handbook of psychophysiology (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press, NY, pp 303–318

Kreibig S (2010) Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion. a review. Biol Psychol 84(3):394–421

Berntson GG, Cacioppo JT, Quigley KS et al (1994) Autonomic space and psychophysiological response. Psychophysiology 31(1):44–61

McEwen BS, Wingfield JC (2010) What is in a name? Integrating homeostasis, allostasis and stress. Horm Behav 57(2):105–111. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.09.011

Gerlach AL, Wilhelm FH, Gruber K et al (2001) Blushing and physiological arousability in social phobia. J Abnorm Psychol 110(2):247–258

Hofmann SG, Newman MG, Ehlers A et al (1995) Psychophysiological differences between subgroups of social phobia. J Abnorm Psychol 104(1):224–231

Heiser NA, Turner SM, Beidel DC et al (2009) Differentiating social phobia from shyness. J Anxiety Disord 23(4):469–476

Beaton EA, Schmidt LA, Ashbaugh AR et al (2006) Low salivary cortisol levels among socially anxious young adults: preliminary evidence from a selected and a non-selected sample. Personality Individ Differ 41(7):1217–1228

van Veen JF, van Vliet IM, DeRijk RH et al (2008) Elevated alpha-amylase but not cortisol in generalized social anxiety disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 33(10):1313–1321

Seeman TE, Robbins RJ (1994) Aging and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal response to challenge in humans. Endocr Rev 15(2):233–260

Sherman B, Wysham C, Pfohl B (1985) Age-related changes in the circadian rhythm of plasma cortisol in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 61(3):439–443

Deuschle M, Gotthardt U, Schweiger U et al (1997) With aging in humans the activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system increases and its diurnal amplitude flattens. Life Sci 61(22):2239–2246

Kaushal P, Taylor JA (2002) Inter-relations among declines in arterial distensibility, baroreflex function and respiratory sinus arrhythmia. J Am Coll Cardiol 39(9):1524–1530

Mullen B (2003) Advanced BASIC meta-analysis, 2nd. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah

La Greca AM, Stone WL (1993) Social Anxiety Scale for Children—Revised: factor structure and concurrent validity. J Clin Child Psychol 22(1):17–27. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2201_2

Cheek JM, Buss AH (1981) Shyness and sociability. J Pers Soc Psychol 41(2):330–339. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.41.2.330

Cohen J (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2nd edn. L. Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale

Anderson ER, Hope DA (2009) The relationship among social phobia, objective and perceived physiological reactivity, and anxiety sensitivity in an adolescent population. J Anxiety Disord 23(1):18–26. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.03.011

Anderson ER, Veed GJ, Inderbitzen-Nolan HM et al (2010) An evaluation of the applicability of the tripartite constructs to social anxiety in adolescents. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 39(2):195–207. doi:10.1080/15374410903532643

Beidel DC (1991) Social phobia and overanxious disorder in school-age children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 30(4):545–552. doi:10.1097/00004583-199107000-00003

Essex MJ, Klein MH, Slattery MJ et al (2010) Early risk factors and developmental pathways to chronic high inhibition and social anxiety disorder in adolescence. Am J Psychiatry 167(1):40–46. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.07010051

Krämer M, Seefeldt WL, Heinrichs N et al (2011) Subjective, autonomic, and endocrine reactivity during social stress in children with social phobia. J Abnorm Child Psychol. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9548-9

Schmitz J, Krämer M, Tuschen-Caffier B et al (2011) Restricted autonomic flexibility in children with social phobia. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 52(11):1203–1211

van West D, Claes S, Sulon J et al (2008) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal reactivity in prepubertal children with social phobia. J Affect Disord 111(2–3):281–290

Beidel DC (1988) Psychophysiological assessment of anxious emotional states in children. J Abnorm Psychol 97(1):80–82

Beidel DC (1991) Determining the reliability of psychophysiological assessment in childhood anxiety. J Anxiety Disord 5(2):139–150

Beidel DC, Turner MW, Trager KN (1994) Test anxiety and childhood anxiety disorders in African American and White school children. J Anxiety Disord 8(2):169–179

Darley SA, Katz I (1973) Heart rate changes in children as a function of test versus game instructions and test anxiety. Child Dev 44(4):784–789

Kondas O (1967) Reduction of examination anxiety and ‘stage-fright’ by group desensitization and relaxation. Behav Res Ther 5(4):275–281

Tennes K, Kreye M (1985) Children’s adrenocortical responses to classroom activities and tests in elementary school. Psychosom Med 47(5):451–460

Cartwright-Hatton S, Tschernitz N, Gomersall H (2005) Social anxiety in children: social skills deficit, or cognitive distortion? Behav Res Ther 43(1):131–141. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2003.12.003

Dietrich A, Riese H, van Roon AM et al (2009) Temperamental activation and inhibition associated with autonomic function in preadolescents. The TRAILS study. Biol Psychol 81(1):67–73. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.02.002

Granger DA, Weisz JR, McCracken JT et al (1996) Reciprocal influences among adrenocortical activation, psychosocial processes, and the behavioral adjustment of clinic-referred children. Child Dev 67(6):3250–3262

Klimes-Dougan B, Hastings PD, Granger DA et al (2001) Adrenocortical activity in at-risk and normally developing adolescents: individual differences in salivary cortisol basal levels, diurnal variation, and responses to social challenges. Dev Psychopathol 13(3):695–719

Matthews KA, Manuck SB, Saab PG (1986) Cardiovascular responses of adolescents during a naturally occurring stressor and their behavioral and psychophysiological predictors. Psychophysiology 23(2):198–209

Mezzacappa E, Tremblay RE, Kindlon D et al (1997) Anxiety, antisocial behavior, and heart rate regulation in adolescent males. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 38(4):457–469

Miers AC, Blöte AW, Bokhorst CL et al (2009) Negative self-evaluations and the relation to performance level in socially anxious children and adolescents. Behav Res Ther 47(12):1043–1049. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.07.017

Miers A, Blöte A, Sumter S et al (2011) Subjective and objective arousal correspondence and the role of self-monitoring processes in high and low socially anxious youth 2(4):531–550

Schiefelbein VL, Susman EJ (2006) Cortisol levels and longitudinal cortisol change as predictors of anxiety in adolescents. J Early Adolesc 26(4):397–413

Schmidt LA, Fox NA, Schulkin J et al (1999) Behavioral and psychophysiological correlates of self-presentation in temperamentally shy children. Dev Psychobiol 35(2):119–135

Schmidt LA, Santesso DL, Schulkin J et al (2007) Shyness is a necessary but not sufficient condition for high salivary cortisol in typically developing 10-year-old children. Personality Individ Differ 43(6):1541–1551

Schmitz J, Blechert J, Krämer M et al (2012) Biased perception and interpretation of bodily anxiety symptoms in childhood social anxiety. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 41(1):92–102. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.632349

Silverman WK, Albano AM (1996) Anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-IV. Child version. Psychological Corp, San Antonio

Shaffer D, Fisher P, Dulcan MK et al (1996) The NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version 2.3 (DISC-2.3): description, acceptability, prevalence rates, and performance in the MECA study. Methods for the epidemiology of child and adolescent mental disorders study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35(7):865–877

Schneider S (2009) Kinder-DIPS. Diagnostisches Interview bei psychischen Störungen im Kindes- und Jugendalter, 2nd edn. Springer, Berlin

Kaufman J, Birmaher B, Brent D et al (1997) Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children-present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36(7):980–988. doi:10.1097/00004583-199707000-00021

Achenbach TM (1991) Child behavior checklist/4-18. Dept. of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington

Rowe DC, Plomin R (1977) Temperament in early childhood. J Pers Assess 41(2):150–156. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4102_5

Hartman C (2000) Dutch translation of the early adolescent temperament questionnaire internal report. University Medical Center Groningen, The Netherlands

Wolpe J, Lang PJ (1964) A fear survey schedule for use in behaviour therapy. Behav Res Ther 2:27–30

Jesness C (1988) Jesness inventory of adolescent personality. Multi-Health Systems, North Tonawanda

La Greca A (1988) Development and validation of the social anxiety scale for children: Reliability and concurrent validity. J Clin Child Psychol 17:84–91

Melfsen S, Florin I (1997) Ein Fragebogen zur Erfassung sozialer Angst bei Kindern (SASC-R-D). Kindheit und Entwicklung 6(4):224–229

Spielberger CD (1986) Preliminary manual for the state-trait personality inventory (STPI). Select Pr, San Rafael

Hodapp V (1991) Das Prüfungsängstlichkeitsinventar TAI-G: eine erweiterte und modifizierte Version mit vier Komponenten. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie/German J Educ Psychol 5(2):121–130

Sarason SB, Davidson NK, Lighthall F et al (1958) A test anxiety scale for children. Child Dev 29(1):105–113

Achenbach TM (1991) Manual for the Youth Self-Report and 1991 Profile. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry, Burlington

van West D, Claes S, Sulon J et al (2008) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal reactivity in prepubertal children with social phobia. J Affect Disord 111(2–3):281–290. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.006

Kirschbaum C, Pirke K, Hellhammer DH (1993) The “Trier social stress test”—A tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology 28(1–2):76–81

Krämer M, Seefeld W, Heinrichs N, Tuschen-Caffier B, Schmitz J, Wolf O, Blechert J (2012) Subjective, autonomic, and endocrine reactivity during social stress in children with social phobia. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 40(1):95–104

Levin AP, Saoud JB, Strauman T et al (1993) Responses of ‘generalized’ and ‘discrete’ social phobics during public speaking. J Anxiety Disord 7(3):207–221

Boone ML, McNeil DW, Masia CL et al (1999) Multimodal comparisons of social phobia subtypes and avoidant personality disorder. J Anxiety Disord 13(3):271–292

Heimberg RG, Hope DA, Dodge CS et al (1990) DSM-III-R subtypes of social phobia. Comparison of generalized social phobics and public speaking phobics. J Nerv Ment Dis 178(3):172–179

McDonald AS (2001) The prevalence and effects of test anxiety in school children educational psychology. Educ Psychol 21(1):89–101. doi:10.1080/01443410020019867

El-Sheikh M, Harger J, Whitson SM (2001) Exposure to interparental conflict and children’s adjustment and physical health: the moderating role of vagal tone. Child Dev 72(6):1617–1636

Kagan J, Reznick JS, Snidman N (1988) Biological bases of childhood shyness. Science 240(4849):167–171

Monk C, Kovelenko P, Ellman LM et al (2001) Enhanced stress reactivity in paediatric anxiety disorders: implications for future cardiovascular health. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 4(2):199–206. doi:10.1017/S146114570100236X

Yeragani VK, Rao KA, Pohl R et al (2001) Heart rate and QT variability in children with anxiety disorders: a preliminary report. Depress Anxiety 13(2):72–77

Chida Y, Hamer M (2008) Chronic psychosocial factors and acute physiological responses to laboratory-induced stress in healthy populations: a quantitative review of 30 years of investigations. Psychol Bull 134(6):829–885. doi:10.1037/a0013342

Thayer JF, Lane RD (2000) A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. J Affect Disord 61(3):201–216

Beauchaine T (2001) Vagal tone, development, and Gray’s motivational theory: toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system functioning in psychopathology. Dev Psychopathol 13(2):183–214

Porges SW (1995) Orienting in a defensive world: mammalian modifications of our evolutionary heritage a polyvagal theory. Psychophysiology 32(4):301–318

Porges SW (2007) The polyvagal perspective. Biol Psychol 74(2):116–143

Friedman BH (2007) An autonomic flexibility-neurovisceral integration model of anxiety and cardiac vagal tone. Biol Psychol 74(2):185–199

Porges SW (1992) Vagal tone: a physiologic marker of stress vulnerability. Pediatrics 90(3):498–504

Badanes LS, Watamura SE, Hankin BL (2011) Hypocortisolism as a potential marker of allostatic load in children: Associations with family risk and internalizing disorders. Develop Psychopathol 23:881–896. doi:10.1017/S095457941100037X

Greaves-Lord K, Tulen J, Dietrich A et al (2010) Reduced autonomic flexibility as a predictor for future anxiety in girls from the general population: the TRAILS study. Psychiatry Res 179(2):187–193. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.04.014

Pujol J, Giménez M, Ortiz H et al (2013) Neural response to the observable self in social anxiety disorder. Psychol Med 43(04):721–731. doi:10.1017/S0033291712001857

Chronis-Tuscano A, Degnan KA, Pine DS et al (2009) Stable Early maternal report of behavioral inhibition predicts lifetime social anxiety disorder in adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48(9):928–935

Miers AC, Blöte AW, Rooij M et al (2013) Trajectories of Social anxiety during adolescence and relations with cognition, social competence, and temperament. J Abnorm Child Psychol 41(1):97–110. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9651-6

Rapee RM, Hayman K (1996) The effects of video feedback on the self-evaluation of performance in socially anxious subjects. Behav Res Ther 34(4):315–322

Harvey AG, Clark DM, Ehlers A et al (2000) Social anxiety and self-impression: cognitive preparation enhances the beneficial effects of video feedback following a stressful social task. Behav Res Ther 38(12):1183–1192. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00148-5

Kim H, Lundh L, Harvey A (2002) The enhancement of video feedback by cognitive preparation in the treatment of social anxiety. A single-session experiment. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 33(1):19–37

Bögels SM (2006) Task concentration training versus applied relaxation, in combination with cognitive therapy, for social phobia patients with fear of blushing, trembling, and sweating. Behav Res Ther 44(8):1199–1210. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.08.010

Eldar S, Apter A, Lotan D et al (2012) Attention bias modification treatment for pediatric anxiety disorders: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry 169(2):213–220

Easterbrook PJ, Berlin JA, Gopalan R et al (1991) Publication bias in clinical research. Lancet 337(8746):867–872

Wilhelm FH, Schneider S, Friedman BH (2006) Psychophysiological assessment. In: Hersen M (ed) Clinician’s handbook of child behavioral assessment. Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego, pp 201–231

Brehm JW, Self EA (1989) The intensity of motivation. Annu Rev Psychol 40(1):109–131. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.40.020189.000545

Richter M, Friedrich A, Gendolla GHE (2008) Task difficulty effects on cardiac activity. Psychophysiology 45(5):869–875. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00688.x

Pfaltz MC, Michael T, Grossman P et al (2009) Respiratory pathophysiology of panic disorder: an ambulatory monitoring study. Psychosom Med 71(8):869–876