Programming of Endocrine Mechanisms of Cardiovascular Control and Growth

Godfrey KM, Barker DJP. Fetal nutrition and adult disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71(Suppl 1):1344S–52S. Lucas A, Fewtrell MS, Cole TJ. Fetal origins of adult disease—hypothesis revisited. BMJ 1999;319:245–9. Hattersley AT, Tooke JE. The fetal insulin hypothesis: An alternative explanation of the association of low birthweight with diabetes and vascular disease. Lancet 1999;353:1789–92. Christensen K, Vaupel JW, Holm NV, Yashin AI. Mortality among twins after age 6: Fetal origins hypothesis versus twin method. BMJ 1995;310:432–6. Poulter NR, Chang CL, MacGregor AJ, Sneider H, Spector TD. Association between birth weight and adult blood pressure in twins: Historical cohort study. BMJ 1999;319:1330–3. Symonds ME, Budge H, Stephenson T. Limitations of models used to examine the influence of nutrition during pregnancy and adult disease. Arch Dis Child 2000;83:215–9. Philips DIW. Mortality among twins. BMJ 1995;310:1330–1. Williams S, Poulton R. Twins and maternal smoking: Ordeals for the fetal origins hypothesis? A cohort study. BMJ 1999;318: 1–5. Hanson MA, Hawkins P, Ozaki T, et al. Effects of experimental dietary manipulation during early pregnancy on cardiovascular and endocrine function in fetal sheep and young lambs. In: O’Brien PMS, Wheeler T, Barker DJP, eds. Fetal programming: Influences on development and disease in later life. 1st ed. London: RCOG Press, 1999:365–73. Woodall SM, Johnson BM, Breier BH, Gluckman PD. Chronic maternal undernutrition in the rat leads to delayed postnatal growth and elevated blood pressure of offspring. Pediatr Res 1996;40:438–43. Ozaki T, Nishina H, Hanson MA, Poston L. Dietary restriction in pregnant rats causes gender-related hypertension and vascular dysfunction in offspring. J Physiol 2001;530 (Pt 1):141–52. Langley-Evans SC, Sherman RC, Welham SJM, Nwagwu MO, Gardner DS, Jackson AA.. Intrauterine programming of hypertension: The role of the renin-angiotensin system. Biochem Soc Trans 1999;27:88–93. Rees WD, Hay SM, Brown DS, Antipatis C, Plamer RM. Maternal protein deficiency causes hypermethylation of DNA in the livers of rat fetuses. J Nutr 2000;130:1821–6. Langley-Evans SC. Critical differences between two low protein diet protocols in the programming of hypertension in the rat. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2000;51:11–7. Tonkiss J, Trzcinska M, Galler JR, Ruiz-Opazo N, Herrera VL. Prenatal malnutrition-induced changes in blood pressure: Dissociation of stress and non-stress responses using radiotelemetry. Hypertension 1998;32:108–14. Steyn C, Hanson MA. Studies of fetal growth in animals. In: Kingdom J, Baker P, eds. Intrauterine growth restriction. 1st ed. London: Springer-Verlag, 2000:73–88. Harding J, Liu L, Evans P, Oliver M, Gluckman P. Intrauterine feeding of the growth retarded fetus: Can we help? Early Hum Dev 1992;29:193–7. Hawkins P, Steyn C, Ozaki T, Saito T, Noakes DE, Hanson MA.. Effect of maternal undernutrition in early gestation on ovine fetal blood pressure and cardiovascular reflexes. Am J Physiol 2000;279:R340–8. Hawkins P, Crowe C, Calder NA, et al. Cardiovascular development in late gestation fetal sheep and young lambs following modest maternal nutrient restriction in early gestation. J Physiol 1997;505:18. Ozaki T, Hawkins P; Nishina H, Steyn C, Poston L, Hanson MA. Effects of undernutrition in early pregnancy on systemic small artery function in late-gestation fetal sheep. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:1301–7. Crowe, CE, Takla T, Symonds M, Clarke L, Hanson MA. Villi density in the placentae of sheep that have been exposed to a mid gestation nutritional insult. Presented at the Meeting of the Fetal and Neonatal Physiological Society, Santa Margherita Ligure, Italy, 15–18 June 1997, Abstract 40. Koser F, Steyn C, Hawkins P, et al. Effect of mild undernutrition in early gestation on fetal placental villous density in sheep. J Physiol 1999;517P:6P. Itoh S, Steyn C, Green LR, Hanson MA. Long-term effects on the lamb of mild undernutrition during early gestation. J Physiol 2000;528P:36P. Nishina H, Kalache K, Green LR, Poston L, Hanson MA. Effect of nutritional restriction in early pregnancy on isolated systemic small artery function in mid gestation fetal sheep. J Soc Gynecol Investig 2000;7:208. Bartelds B, Van Bel F, Teitel DF, Rudolph AM. Carotid, not aortic, chemoreceptors mediate the fetal cardiovascular response to acute hypoxemia in lambs. Pediatr Res 1993;34:51–5. Giussani DA, Spencer JAD, Hanson MA. Fetal cardiovascular reflex responses to hypoxaemia. Fetal Maternal Med Rev 1994; 6:17–37. Green LR, McGarrigle HHG, Bennet L, Hanson MA. Angiotensin II and cardiovascular chemoreflex reposnses to acute hypoxia in late gestation fetal sheep. J Physiol 1998;507:857–67. Jones CT, Robinson RO. Plasma catecholamines in foetal and adult sheep. J Physiol 1975;248:15–33. Schuijers JA, Walker DW, Browne CA, Thorburn GD. Effect of hypoxemia on plasma catecholamines in intact and immunosympathectomized fetal lambs. Am J Physiol 1986;251: R893–900. Cohen WR, Piasecki GJ, Jackson BT. Plasma catecholamines during hypoxemia in fetal lamb. Am J Physiol 1982;243: R520–5. Smolich JJ, Esler MD. Total body catecholamine kinetics before and after birth in spontaneously hypoxemic fetal lambs. Am J Physiol 1999;277:R1313–20. Shaul PW, Magness RR, Muntz KH, Debeltz D, Buja LM. a1-adrenergic receptors in pulmonary and systemic vascular smooth muscle. Circ Res 1990;67:1193–200. Giussani DA, Riquelme RA, Sanhueza EM, Hanson MA, Blanco CE, Llanos AJ. Adrenergic and vasopressinergic contributions to the cardiovascular response to acute hypoxaemia in the llama fetus. J Physiol 1999;515:233–41. Giussani DA, Riquelme RA, Moraga FA, et al. Chemoreflex and endocrine components of cardiovascular responses to acute hypoxemia in the llama fetus. Am J Physiol 1996;27:R73–83. Robillard JE, Weitzman RE. Developmental aspects of the fetal renal response to exogenous arginine vasopressin. Am J Physiol 1980;238:F407–14. Matthews SG, Challis JR. Regulation of CRH and AVP mRNA in the developing ovine hypothalamus: Effects of stress and glucocorticoids. Am J Physiol 1995;268:E1096–107. Daniel SS, Stark RI, Zubrow AB, Fox HE, Husain, MK, James LS. Factors in the release of vasopressin by the hypoxic fetus. Endocrinology 1983;113:1623–8. Stein P, White SE, Homan J, et al. Fetal endocrine responses to prolonged reduced uterine blood flow are altered following bilateral sectioning of the carotid sinus and vagus nerves. J Endocrinol 1998;157:149–55. Rurak DW. Plasma vasopressin levels during hypoxaemia and the cardiovascular effects of exogenous vasopressin in foetal and adult sheep. J Physiol 1978;277:341–57. Robillard JE, Weitzman RE, Burmeister L, Smith FG. Developmental aspects of the renal response to hypoxemia in the lamb fetus. Circ Res 1981;48:128–38. Iwamoto HS, Rudolph AM. Effects of endogenous angiotensin II on the fetal circulation. J Dev Physiol 1979;1:283–93. Nuyt AM, Segar JL, Holley AT, O’Mara MS, Chapleau MW, Robillard JE. Arginine vasopressin modulation of arterial baroreflex responses in fetal and newborn sheep. Am J Physiol 1996;271:R1643–53. Perez R, Espinoza M, Riquelme R, Parer JT, Llanos AJ. Arginine vasopressin mediates cardiovascular responses to hypoxemia in fetal sheep. Am J Physiol 1989;256:R1011–8. Piacquadio KM, Brace RA, Cheung CY. Role of vasopressin in mediation of fetal cardiovascular responses to acute hypoxia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:1294–300. Song J, Ram JL. Ionic mechanisms of peptide-induced responses in vascular endothelial cells. In: Sowers JR, ed. Endocrinology of the vasculature. 1st ed. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press, 1996:21–36. Matthews SG, Challis JR. Regulation of the hypothalamopituitary-adrenocortical axis in fetal sheep. Trends Endocrinol Metab 1996;7:239–46. Norman L, Lye SJ, Wlodeck ME, Challis JRG. Changes in pituitary responses to synthetic ovine corticotrophin releasing factor in fetal sheep. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1985;63:1398–403. Wood CE, Cheung CY, Brace RA. Fetal heart rate, arterial pressure, and blood volume responses to Cortisol infusion. Am J Physiol 1987;253:R904–9. Dodic M, Wintour EM. Effects of prolonged (48h) infusion of Cortisol on blood pressure, renal function and fetal fluids in the immature ovine foetus. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1994;21: 971–80. Tangalakis K, Lumbers ER, Moritz KM, Towstoless MK, Wintour EM. Effect of Cortisol on blood pressure and vascular reactivity in the ovine fetus. Exp Physiol 1992;77:709–17. Unno N, Wong CH, Jenkins SL, et al. Blood pressure and heart rate in the ovine fetus: Ontogenic changes and effects of fetal adrenalectomy. Am J Physiol 1999;276:H248–56. Towell ME, Figueroa J, Markowitz, Elias B, Natanielsz P. The effect of mild hypoxemia maintained for twenty-four hours on maternal and fetal glucose, lactate, Cortisol, and arginine vasopressin in pregnant sheep at 122–139 days’ gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;157:1550–7. Jackson BT, Morrison SH, Cohn HE, Piasecki GJ. Adrenal secretion of glucocorticoids during hypoxemia in fetal sheep. Endocrinology 1989;125:2751–7. Richardson BS, Korkola S, Asano H, Challis J, Polk D, Fraser M. Regional blood flow and the endocrine response to sustained hypoxemia in the preterm ovine fetus. Pediatr Res 1996; 40:337–43. Akagi K, Berdusco ETM, Challis JRG. Cortisol inhibits ACTH but not the AVP response to hypoxaemia in fetal lambs at days 123–128 of gestation. J Dev Physiol 1990;14:319–24. Carter AM, Homan J, Fraser M, Richardson BS, Challis JRG. Inhibition of ACTH secretion blocks hypoxia-induced increase of adrenal cortical blood flow in fetal sheep. Am J Physiol 1995;269:E598–604. Takeda Y, Miyamori I, Yoneda T, et al. Synthesis of corticosterone in the vascular wall. Endocrinology 1994;135:2283–6. Ozolins IZ, Young IR, McMillen IC. Surgical disconnection of the hypothalamus from the fetal pituitary abolishes the corticotrophic response to intrauterine hypoglycemia or hypoxemia in the sheep during late gestation. Endocrinology 1992; 130:2438–45. Riquelme RA, Llanos AJ, Mc Garrigle HH, Sanhueza EM, Hanson MA, Giussani DA. Chemoreflex contribution to adre-nocortical function during acute hypoxemia in the llama fetus at 0.6 to 0.7 of gestation. Endocrinology 1998;139:2564–70. Myers DA, Robertshaw D, Nathanielsz PW. Effect of bilateral splanchnic nerve section on adrenal function in the ovine fetus. Endocrinology 1990;127:2328–35. Smith FG, Lupu AN, Barajas L, Bauer R, Bashore RA. The renin-angiotensin system in the fetal lamb. Pediatr Res 1974; 611–20. Siegel SR, Fisher DA.. Ontogeny of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in the fetal and newborn lamb. Pediatr Res 1980;14:99–102. Rawadesh NM, Rose JC, Ray ND. Renin secretion by fetal lamb kidneys in vitro. Am J Physiol 1990;258:R388–92. Forehead AJ, Melvin R, Balouzet V, Fowden AL. Developmental changes in plasma angiotensin-converting enzyme concentration in fetal and neonatal lambs. Reprod Fertil Dev 1998; 10:393–8. Tufro-McReddie A, Harrison JK, Everett AD, Gomez RA. Ontogeny of type I angiotensin I receptor gene expression in the rat. J Clin Invest 1993;91:530–7. Shanmugam S, Monnot C, Corvol P, Gasc JM. Distribution of type I angiotensin II receptor subtype messenger RNAs in the rat fetus. Hypertension 1994;23:137–41. Cox BE, Rosenfeld CR. Ontogeny of vascular angiotensin II receptor subtype expression in ovine development. Pediatr Res 1999;45:414–24. Forehead AJ, Broughton Pipkin F, Fowden AL. Effect of Cortisol on blood pressure and the renin-angiotensin system in fetal sheep during late gestation. J Physiol 2000;526:167–76. Iwamoto HS, Rudolph AM. Effects of endogenous angiotensin II in the fetal circulation. J Dev Physiol 1979;1:283–93. Edwards LJ, Simonetta G, Owens JA, Robinson JS, Mcmillen IC. Restriction of placental and fetal growth in sheep alters fetal blood pressure responses to angiotensin II and captopril. J Physiol 1999;515:897–904. Broughton Pipkin F, Lumbers ER, Mott JC. Factors influencing plasma renin and angiotensin II in the conscious pregnant ewe and its foetus. J Physiol 1974;243:619–36. Robillard JE, Nakamura KT, Dibona GF. Effect of renal denervation on renal responses to hypoxemia in fetal lambs. Am J Physiol 1986;250:F294–301. Iwamoto HS, Rudolph AM. Effects of angiotensin II on the blood flow and its distribution in fetal lambs. Circ Res 1981; 48:183–9. Robillard JE, Smith FG, Segar JL, Guillery EW, Jose PA. Renal function in the fetus. In: Thorburn GD, Harding R, eds. Textbook of fetal physiology. 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994:196–204. Hyman A, Heymann M, Levin D, Rudolph A. Angiotensin is not the mediator of hypoxia-induced pulmonary vasoconstriction in fetal lambs. Circulation 1975;51(Suppl 2):521. Allen AM. Angiotensin AT1 receptor-mediated excitation of rat carotid body chemoreceptor afferent activity. J Physiol 1998; 510:773–81. Paton FR, Kasparov S. Differential effects of angiotensin II on cardiorespiratory reflexes mediated by nucleus tractus solitarii—a microinjection study in the rat. J Physiol 1999;521: 213–25. Masumoto N, Tanabe, Saito M, Nakayama K. Attenuation of pressure-induced myogenic contraction and tyrosine phosphorylation by fasudil, a cerebral vasodilator, in rat cerebral artery. Br J Pharmacol 2000;130:219–30. Storme L, Rairigh RL, Parker TA, KinseUa JP, Abman SH. In vivo evidence for a myogenic response in the fetal pulmonary circulation. Pediatr Res 1999;45:425–31. Sakurai T, Yanagisawa M, Masaki T. Molecular characterization of endothelin receptors. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 1992;13:103–8. Chatfield BA, McMurtry IF, Hall SL, Abman SH. Hemodynamic effects of endothelin-1 on ovine fetal pulmonary circulation. Am J Physiol 1991;261:R182–7. Jones OW, Abman SH. Systemic and pulmonary hemodynamic effects of big endothelin-1 and phosphoramidon in the ovine fetus. Am J Physiol 1994;266:R929–35. Bogaert GA, Kogan BA, Mevorach RA, et al. Exogenous endothelin-1 causes renal vasodilation in the fetal lamb. J Urol 1996;156:847–53. Green LR, McGarrigle HHG, Bennet L, Hanson MA. The role of endothelin-A receptors in cardiovascular responses to acute hypoxaemia in the late gestation sheep fetus. J Physiol 1998; 509:297–304. Ivy DD, Kinsella JP, Abman SH. Physiological characterization of endothelin A and B receptor activity in the ovine fetal pulmonary circulation. J Clin Invest 1994;93:2141–8. Moncada S, Higgs A.. The L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway. N Engl J Med 1993;329:2002–12. Bogaert GA, Kogan BA, Mevorach RA. Effects of endothelium-derived nitric oxide on renal hemodynamics and function in the sheep fetus. Pediatr Res 1993;34:755–61. Fineman JR, Wong J, Morin FC, Wild LM, Soifer SJ. Chronic nitric oxide inhibition in utero produces persistent pulmonary hypertension in newborn lambs. J Clin Invest 1994;93:2675–83. Green LR, Bennet L, Hanson MA.. The role of nitric oxide synthesis in cardiovascular responses to acute hypoxia in the late gestation sheep fetus. J Physiol 1996;497:271–7. Fan WQ, Smolich JJ, Wild J, Yu VY, Walker AM. Major vasodilator role for nitric oxide in the gastrointestinal circulation of the mid-gestation fetal lamb. Pediatr Res 1998;44:344–50. Chlorakos A, Langille BL, Adamson SL.. Cardiovascular responses attenuate with repeated NO synthesis inhibition in conscious sheep. Am J Physiol 1998;274:H1472–80. VanBel F, Roman C, Klautz RJM, Teitel DF, Rudolph AM. Relationship between brain blood flow and carotid arterial flow in the sheep fetus. Pediatr Res 1995;35:329–33. Trolliet, MR, Philips MI. The effect of chronic bilateral nephrectomy on plasma and brain angiotensin. J Hypertens 1992; 10:29–36. Kifor I, Dzau VJ. Endothelial renin-angiotensin pathway: Evidence for intracellular synthesis and secretion of angiotensins. Circ Res 1987;60:422–8. Hatakeyama H, Inaba S, Takeda R, Miyamori I. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in human vascular cells. Kidney Int 2000;57:1352–7. Koos BJ, Chau A, Ogunyemi D. Adenosine mediates metabolic and cardiovascular responses to hypoxia in fetal sheep. J Physiol 1995;488:761–6. Paller MS, Linas SL. Role of angiotensin II, α-adrenergic system, and arginine vasopressin on arterial pressure in rat. Am J Physiol 1984;246:H25–30. Pohl U, Kaas J. Interactions of hormones with the vascular endothelium. Effects on the control of vascular tone. Arzneim-Forsch/Drug Res 1994;44:459–61. Stein P, White SE, Homan J, Hanson MA, Bocking AD. Altered fetal cardiovascular responses to prolonged hypoxia after sinoaortic denervation. Am J Physiol 1999;276:R340–6. Murotsuki J, Challis JRG, Han VKM, Fraher LJ, Gagnon R. Chronic fetal placental embolization and hypoxemia cause hypertension and myocardial hypertrophy in fetal sheep. Am J Physiol 1997;272:R210–7. Shinozuka N, Yen A, Nathanielsz PW. Increased myometrial contracture frequency at 96–140 days accelerates fetal cardiovascular maturation. Am J Physiol 2000;278:H41–9. Steyn C, Hanson MA. The effect of repeated acute hypoxaemia on fetal cardiovascular development in the sheep. J Physiol 1998;1:295–306. Collins JH, Collins CL, Weckwerth SR, de Angelis L. Nuchal cords: Timing of prenatal diagnosis and duration. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;173:768. Green LR, Homan J, White SE, Richardson BS. Cardiovascular and metabolic responses to intermittent umbilical cord occlusion in the preterm ovine fetus. J Soc Gynecol Investig 1999; 6:56–63. Green LR, Kawagoe Y, White S, Homan J, Richardson BS. Cardiovascular responses to umbilical cord occlusion are altered during the latter part of gestation in the ovine fetus. J Soc Gynecol Investig 1999;6:52. Hawkins P, Steyn C, McGarrigle HHG, et al. Cardiovascular and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis development in late gestation fetal sheep and young lambs following modest maternal nutrient restriction in early gestation. Reprod Fertil Dev. In Press. Green LR, Kawagoe Y, Fraser M, Challis JRG, Richardson BS. Activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis with repetitive umbilical cord occlusion in the preterm ovine fetus. J Soc Gynecol Investig 2000;7:224–32. Unno N, Giussani DA, Hing WK, Ding XY, Collins JH, Nathanielsz PW. Changes in adrenocorticotrophin and Cortisol responsiveness after repeated partial umbilical cord occlusion in the late gestation ovine fetus. Endocrinology 1997;138:259–63. Harvey LM, Gilbert RD, Longo LD, Duscay CA. Changes in ovine fetal adrenocortical responsiveness after long-term hypoxemia. Am J Physiol 1993;264:E741–7. Meaney MJ, Bhatnagar S, Diorio J, et al. Molecular basis for the development of individual differences in the hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal stress response. Cell Mol Neurobiol 1993;13: 321–47. Philips ID, Simonetta G, Owens JA, Robinson JS, Clarke IJ, McMillen IC. Placental restriction alters the functional development of the pituitary-adrenal axis in the sheep fetus during late gestation. Pediatr Res 1996;40:861–6. Matthews SG. Antenatal glucocorticoids and programming of the developing CNS. Pediatr Res 2000;47:291–300. Sloboda DM, Newnham JP, Challis JRG. Effects of repeated maternal betamethasone administration on growth and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function of the ovine fetus at term. J Endocrinol 2000;165:79–91. Dodic M, Peers A, Coghlan JP, et al. Altered cardiovascular haemodynamics and baroreceptor-heart rate reflex in adult sheep after prenatal exposure to dexamethasone. Clin Sci 1999; 97:103–9. Seckl JR, Cleasby M, Nyirenda J. Glucocorticoids, 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and fetal programming. Kidney Int 2000;57:1412–7. Hawkins P, Steyn C, McGarrigle HH, et al. Effect of maternal nutrient restriction in early gestation on development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in fetal sheep at 0.8–0.9 of gestation. J Endocrinol 1999;163:553–61. Hawkins P, Steyn C, McGarrigle HH, et al. Effect of maternal nutrient restriction in early gestation on responses of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to acute isocapnic hypoxaemia in late gestation fetal sheep. Exp Physiol 2000;85:85–96. Martyn CN, Lever AF, Morton JJ. Plasma concentrations of inactive rennin in adult life are related to indicators of foetal growth. J Hypertens 1996;14:881–6. Konje JC, Bell SC, Morton JJ, de Chazal R, Taylor DJ. Human fetal kidney morphometry during gestation and the relationship between weight, kidney morphometry and plasma active renin concentration at birth. Clin Sci 1996;91:169–75. Kingdom JCP, Hayes M, McQueen, Howatson AG, Lindop GBM. Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with persistent juxtamedullary expression of renin in the fetal kidney. Kidney Int 1999;55:424–9. Woods LL. Neonatal uninephrectomy causes hypertension in adult rats. Am J Physiol 1999;276:R974–8. Woods LL, Rasch R. Perinatal AngII programs adult blood pressure, glomerular number, and renal function in rats. Am J Physiol 1998;275:R1593–9. Zhang DY, Lumbers ER, Simonetta G, et al. Effects of placental insufficiency on the ovine fetal renin-angiotensin system. Exp Physiol 2000;85:79–84. Forhead AJ, Gillespie CE, Fowden AL.. Role of Cortisol in the ontogenic control of pulmonary and renal angiotensin-converting enzyme in fetal sheep near term. J Physiol 2000;526:409–16. Segar JL, Bedell K, Page WV, Mazursky JE, Nuyt AM, Robillard JE. Effect of Cortisol on gene expression of the reninangiotensin system in fetal sheep. Pediatr Res 1995;37:741–6. Poore KR, Young IR, Canny BJ, Thorburn GD. Angiotensin II infusion in vivo does not modulate Cortisol secretion in the late-gestation ovine fetus. Am J Physiol 2000;275:R357–62. Schork NJ, Jokelainen P, Grant EJ, Schork MA, Weder AB. Relationship of growth and blood pressure in inbred rats. Am J Physiol 1994;266:R702–8. Crowe C, Bennet L, Hanson MA. Blood pressure and cardiovascular reflex development in fetal sheep. Relation to hypoxaemia, weight, and blood glucose. Reprod Fertil Dev 1995;7: 553–8. Han VKM, Hill DJ. Growth factors in fetal growth. In: Thornurn GD, Harding R, eds. The textbook of fetal physiology. 1st ed. Oxford University Press, New York, 1994:48–69. Gluckman PD. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins. In: Hanson MA, Spenser JAD, Rodeck CH, eds. Fetus and neonate, physiology and clinical implications. Vol 3, Growth. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1995: 97–115. Giudice LC, de Zegher F, Gargosky SE, et al. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins in the term and preterm human fetus and neonate with normal and extremes of intrauterine growth. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995;80:1548–55. Kind KL, Owens JA, Robinson JS, et al. Effect of restriction of placental growth on expression of IGFs in fetal sheep: Relationship to fetal growth, circulating IGFs and binding proteins. J Endocrinol 1995;146:23–34. Li J, Saunders JC, Gilmour RS, Silver M, Fowden AL. Insulinlike growth factor-II messenger ribonucleic acid expression in fetal tissues of the sheep during late gestation: Effects of Cortisol. Endocrinology 1993;132:2083–9. Hooper SB, Bocking AD, White SE, Fraher LJ, McDonald TJ, Han VKM. Catecholamines stimulate the synthesis and release of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 (IGFBP-1) by fetal sheep liver in vivo. Endocrinology 1994;134:1104–12. Iwamoto HS, Murray MA, Chernausek SD. Effects of acute hypoxemia on insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins in fetal sheep. Am J Physiol 1992;263:E1151–6. McLellan KC, Hooper SB, Bocking AD, et al. Prolonged hypoxia induced by reduction of maternal uterine blood flow alters insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-1 (IGFBP-1) and IGFBP-2 gene expression in the ovine fetus. Endocrinology 1992;131:1619–28. Green LR, Kawagoe Y, Hill DJ, Richardson BS, Han VKM. The effect of intermittent umbilical cord occlusion on insulinlike growth factors and their binding proteins in preterm and near-term ovine fetuses. J Endocrinol 2000;166:565–77. Osak R, Webster KM, Bocking AD, Campbell MK, Richardson BS. Nuchal cord evident at birth impacts on fetal size relative to that of the placenta. Early Hum Dev 1997;49:193–202. Gallaher BW, Oliver MH, Eichhorn K, et al. Circulating insulin-like growth factor II/mannose-6-phosphate receptor and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins in fetal sheep plasma are regulated by glucose and insulin. Eur J Endocrinol 1994; 131:398–404. Gluckman PD. Endocrine and nutritional regulation of prenatal growth. Acta Paediatr 1997;423:153–7. Gluckman PD, Harding JE. Fetal growth retardation: Underlying endocrine mechanisms and postnatal consequences. Acta Pediatr 1997;422:69–72. Robinson JJ, Sinclair KD, McEvoy TG. Nutritional effects on foetal growth. Animal Sci 1999;68:315–31. Gallaher BW, Breier BH, Keven CL, Harding JE, Gluckman PD. Fetal programming of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 and IGF-binding protein-3: Evidence for an altered response to undernutrition in late gestation following exposure to pericon-ceptual undernutrition in the sheep. J Endocrinol 1998; 159: 501–8. Gustafsson T, Andersson P, Chen Y, Magnusson JO, Arnqvist HJ. Interaction of angiotensin I and the insulin-like growth factor system in vascular smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol 1999;277:H488–507. Bakns GL, Standley PR, Palant CE, Walsh MF, Sowers JR. Analogy between endothelial/mesangial cell and endothelial/ vascular smooth muscle cell interactions. In: Sowers JR, ed. Endocrinology of the vasculature. 1st ed. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press, 1996:341–55. Diket AL, Pierce MR, Munshi UP, et al. Nitric oxide inhibition causes intrauterine growth retardation and hind-limb disruptions in rats. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;171:1243–50. Tebbs C, Pratten MK, Broughton Pipkin F. Angiotensin II is a growth factor in the perinatal rat embryo. J Anat 1999;75–86. Yamada H, Akishita M, Ito M, et al. AT2 receptor and vascular smooth muscle cell differentiation in vascular development. Hypertension 1999;33:1414–9. Delafontaine P, Lou H. Angiotensin II regulates insulin-like growth factor gene expression in vascular smooth muscle cells. J Biol Chem 1993;268:16866–70. Scheidegger KJ, Du J, Delafontaine P. Distinct and common pathways in the regulation of insulin-like growth factor-I gene expression by angiotensin II and basic fibroblast growth factor. J Biol Chem 1999;274:3522–30.