Prevention of pneumococcal meningitis

Schuchat A, Robinson K, Wenger JD, et al.: Bacterial meningitis in the United States in 1995. N Engl J Med 1997, 337:970–976.

O’Dempsey TJ, Mcardle TF, Lloyd-Evans N, et al.: Pneumococcal disease among children in a rural area of West Africa. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996, 15:431–437.

Eskola J, Takala AK, Kela E, et al.: Epidemiology of invasive pneumococcal infections in children in Finland. JAMA 1992, 268:3323–3327.

Dagan R, Englehard D, Piccard E, et al.: Epidemiology of invasive childhood pneumococcal infections in Israel. JAMA 1992, 268:3328–3332.

Voss L, Lennon D, Okesene-Gafa K, et al.: Invasive pneumococcal disease in a pediatric population, Auckland, New Zealand. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994, 13:873–878.

Robinson KA, Baughman W, Rothrock G, et al.: Epidemiology of invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae infections in the United States, 1995–1998. JAMA 2001, 285:1729–1735. A nice review of the frequency of pneumococccal disease seen in the United States.

Musher DM, Breiman RF, Tomasz A: Streptococcus pneumoniae: at the threshold of the 21st century. In Streptococcus pneumoniae — Molecular Biology and Mechanisms of Disease. Edited by Tomasz A. New York: Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.; 2000:485–491.

Douglas RM, Paton JC, Duncan SJ, et al.: Antibody response to pneumococcal vaccination in children younger than five years of age. J Infect Dis 1983, 148:131–137.

Levine OS, Farley MF, Harrison LH, et al.: Risk factors for invasive pneumococcal disease in children: A population-based case-control study in North America. Pediatrics 1999, 103:1–5.

Deeks SL, Palacio R, Ruvinsky R, et al.: Risk factors and course of illness among children with invasive penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Pediatrics 1999, 103:409–413. Review of factors that place children at increased risk for pneumococcal disease.

Hausdoff WP, Bryant J, Paradiso PR, Siber GR: Which pneumococcal serogroups cause the most invasive disease: implications for conjugate vaccine formulation and use, Part I. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 30:100–121. Part I of an extensive and comprehensive review of the pneumococcal serotypes that cause disease in different parts of the world and the rationale behind choosing the serotypes to be included in the conjugate vaccines.

Hausdorff WP, Bryant J, Kloek C, et al.: The contributions of specific pneumococcal serogroups to different disease manifestations: implications for conjugate vaccine formulation and use, Part II. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 30:122–140. Part II of an excellent review on the most common serotypes that cause pneumococcal disease worldwide.

Ghaffar F, Friedland IR, McCracken GH Jr: Dynamics of nasopharyngeal colonization by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999, 18:638–646. Concise review of the pathogenesis and epidemiology of nasopharyngeal colonization by S. pneumoniae.

Klugman KP: Pneumococcal resistance to antibiotics. Clin Microbiol Rev 1990, 3:171–196.

Gray BM, Converse GM III, Dillon HC Jr: Epidemiologic studies of Streptococcus pneumoniae in infants: acquistion, carriage, and infection during the first 24 months of life. J Infect Dis 1980, 142:923–933.

Tauber MG, Burroughs M, Niemoller UM, et al.: Differences in pathophysiology in experimental meningitis caused by three strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Infect Dis 1991, 163:806–811.

Engelhard D, Pomeranz S, Gallily R, et al.: Serotype-related differences in inflammatory response to Streptococcus pneumoniae in experimental meningitis. J Infect Dis 1997, 175:979–982.

Committee on Infectious Diseases, American Academy of Pediatrics: Pneumococcal infections. In Red Book: Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, edn 25. Edited by Pickering LK, Peter G, Baker CJ, et al. Elk Grove, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2000.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Preventing pneumococcal disease among infants and young children: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2000, 49(RR09):1–38.

O’Dempsey TJ, McArdle TF, Morris J, et al.: A study of riskfactors for pneumococcal disease among children in a rural area of West Africa. Int J Epidemiol 1996, 25:885–893.

Feigin RD, McCracken GH Jr, Klein JO: Diagnosis and management of meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1992, 11:785–814.

Tunkel AR, Wispelwey B, Scheld WM: Pathogenesis and pathophysiology of meningitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1990, 4:555–581.

Baraff LJ, Lee SI, Schriger DL: Outcomes of bacterial meningitis in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993, 12:389–394.

Arditi M, Mason EO Jr, Bradley JS, et al.: Three-year multicenter surveillance of pneumococcal meningitis in children: clinical characteristics, and outcome related to penicillin susceptibility and dexamethasone use. Pediatrics 1998, 102:1087–1097. Comprehensive review of pneumococcal meningitis in children.

McCracken GHJ: Emergence of resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: a problem in pediatrics. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995, 14:424–428.

Dowell SF, Schwartz B: Resistant pneumococci: protecting patients through judicious use of antibiotics. Am Fam Physician 1997, 57:1647–1648.

Song JH, Lee NY, Ichiyama S, et al.: Spread of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in Asian countries: Asian network for surveillance of resistant pathogens (ANSORP) study. Clin Infect Dis 1999, 28:1206–1211.

Appelbaum PC: Antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae: an overview. Clin Infect Dis 1992, 15:77–83.

Marton A: Pneumococcal antimicrobial resistance: the problem in Hungary. Clin Infect Dis 1992, 15:106–111.

Doern GV: Trends in antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial pathogens of the respiratory tract. Am J Med 1995, 99(Suppl 6B):3S-7S.

Jacobs MR, Bajaksouzian S, Zilles A, et al.: Susceptibilities of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae to 10 oral antimicrobial agents based on pharmacodynamic parameters: 1997 U.S. Surveillance study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999, 43:1901–1908.

Kaplan SL, Mason EO Jr, Wald ER, et al.: Six year multicenter surveillance of invasive pneumococcal infections in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002, 21:141–147. Excellent review of the types of invasive pneumococcal disease seen in children and the incidence of antimicrobial resistance.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Geographic variation in penicillin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae — selected sites, United States, 1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wk Report 1999, 48:656–661.

Bulter JC, Hofmann J, Cetron MS, et al.: The continued emergence of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States: an update from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Pneumococcal Sentinel Surveillance System. J Infect Dis 1996, 174:986–993.

John CC: Treatment failure with use of a third-generation cephalosporin for penicillin-resistant pneumococcal meningitis: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 1994, 18:188–193.

Guibert M, Chahime H, Odievre M, Labrune P: Failure of cefotaxime treatment in two children with meningitis caused by highly penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Acta Pediatr 1995, 84:831–833.

Sloas MM, Barrett FF, Chesney PJ, et al.: Cephalosporin treatment failure in penicillin-and cephalosporin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1992, 11:662–666.

Bradley JS, Connor JD: Ceftriaxone failure in meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae with reduced susceptibility to beta-lactam antibiotics. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1991, 10:871–873.

Lonks JR, Durkin MR, Meyerhoff AN, Medeiros AA: Meningitis due to ceftriaxone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. N Engl J Med 1995, 332:893–894.

John CC, Aouad G, Berman B, Schreiber JR: Successful meropenem treatment of multiply resistant pneumococcal meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997, 16:1009–1011.

Paris MM, Ramilo O, McCracken GH Jr: Management of meningitis caused by penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995, 39:2171–2175.

Scott JAG, Hall AJ, Dagan R, et al.: Serogroup-specific epidemiology of Streptococcus pneumoniae: association with age, sex, geography in 7000 episodes of invasive disease. Clin Infect Dis 1996, 22:973–981.

Giebink GS: Preventing pneumococcal disease in children: recommendations for using pneumococcal vaccine. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1985, 4:343–348.

Rubin LG: Pneumococcal vaccine. Pediatr Clin North Am 2000, 47:269–285. A comprehensive reivew of the pneumococcal polysaccharide and conjugate vaccines.

Eskola J, Anttila M: Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999, 18:543–551. Excellent review of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccines.

Shinefield HR, Black S, Ray P, et al.: Safety and immunogenicity of heptavalent pneumococcal CRM197 conjugate vaccine in infants and toddlers. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999, 18:757–763.

Eskola J: Immunogenicity of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000, 19:388–393. Excellent review of the studies performed looking at the immunogenicity of the conjugate vaccines.

Black S, Shinefield H, Fireman B, et al.: Efficacy, safety and immunogenicity of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000, 19:187–195. Landmark study demonstrating the outstanding safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of the heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine.

Tan TQ: Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines-implications for community antibiotic prescribing. Curr Opin Microbiol 2000, 3:502–507. Comprehensive review of pneumococcal infections and the potential impact of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccines on antimicrobial use and resistance.

Lieu TA, Gay GT, Black SB, et al.: Projected cost-effectiveness of pneumococcal conjugate vaccination of healthy infants and young children. JAMA 2000, 283:1460–1468. Primary cost-effectiveness analysis of the use of the heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in a population of healthy infants.