Prevalence and clinical course of Clostridium difficile infection in a tertiary-care hospital: a retrospective analysis

McFarland LV. Diarrhea acquired in the hospital. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 1993;22:563–77.

Bartlett JG, Moon N, Chang TW, Taylor N, Onderdonk AB. Role of Clostridium difficile in antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis. Gastroenterology. 1978;75:778–82.

Kyne L, Hamel MB, Polavaram R, Kelly CP. Health care costs and mortality associated with nosocomial diarrhea due to Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:346–53.

Bartlett JG. Clinical practice. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:334–9.

Morinville V, McDonald J. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in 200 Canadian children. Can J Gastroenterol. 2005;19:497–501.

Bauer MP, Goorhuis A, Koster T, et al. Community-onset Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea not associated with antibiotic usage – two case reports with review of the changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. Neth J Med. 2008;66:207–11.

Chakrabarti S, Lees A, Jones SG, Milligan DW. Clostridium difficile infection in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients is associated with severe graft-versus-host disease and non-relapse mortality. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2000;26:871–6.

Bilgrami S, Feingold JM, Dorsky D, et al. Incidence and outcome of Clostridium difficile infection following autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 1999;23:1039–42.

Keven K, Basu A, Re L, et al. Clostridium difficile colitis in patients after kidney and pancreas-kidney transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis. 2004;6:10–4.

Gorschluter M, Glasmacher A, Hahn C, et al. Clostridium difficile infection in patients with neutropenia. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33:786–91.

Pulvirenti JJ, Mehra T, Hafiz I, et al. Epidemiology and outcome of Clostridium difficile infection and diarrhea in HIV infected in-patients. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2002;44:325–30.

Leonard J, Marshall JK, Moayyedi P. Systematic review of the risk of enteric infection in patients taking acid suppression. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102:2047–56. quiz 2057.

Rodemann JF, Dubberke ER, Reske KA, da Seo H, Stone CD. Incidence of Clostridium difficile infection in inflammatory bowel disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007;5:339–44.

Issa M, Vijayapal A, Graham MB, et al. Impact of Clostridium difficile on inflammatory bowel disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007;5:345–51.

Kochhar R, Ayyagari A, Goenka MK, Dhali GK, Aggarwal R, Mehta SK. Role of infectious agents in exacerbations of ulcerative colitis in India. A study of Clostridium difficile. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1993;16:26–30.

Balamurugan R, Balaji V, Ramakrishna BS. Estimation of faecal carriage of Clostridium difficile in patients with ulcerative colitis using real time polymerase chain reaction. Indian J Med Res. 2008;127:472–7.

Niyogi SK, Bhattacharya SK, Dutta P, et al. Prevalence of Clostridium difficile in hospitalised patients with acute diarrhoea in Calcutta. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res. 1991;9:16–9.

Dhawan B, Chaudhry R, Sharma N. Incidence of Clostridium difficile infection: a prospective study in an Indian hospital. J Hosp Infect. 1999;43:275–80.

Chaudhry R, Joshy L, Kumar L, Dhawan B. Changing pattern of Clostridium difficile associated diarrhoea in a tertiary care hospital: a 5 year retrospective study. Indian J Med Res. 2008;127:377–82.

Katyal R, Vaishnavi C, Singh K. Faecal excretion of brush border membrane enzymes in patients with clostridium difficile diarrhoea. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2002;20:178–82.

Gupta U, Yadav RN. Clostridium difficile in hospital patients. Indian J Med Res. 1985;82:398–401.

Ayyagari A, Sharma P, Venkateswarlu, Mehta S, Agarwal KC. Prevalence of Clostridium difficile in pseudomembranous and antibiotic-associated colitis in north India. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res. 1986;4:157–60.

Al-Eidan FA, McElnay JC, Scott MG, Kearney MP. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea in hospitalised patients. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2000;25:101–9.

Niyogi SK. Clostridium difficile – associated diarrhoeal diseases: an overview. J Indian Med Assoc. 1995;93:105–7.

Vaishnavi C, Thapa BR, Thennarasu K, Singh K. Faecal lactoferrin assay as an adjunct to Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 2002;45:69–73.

Gogate A, De A, Nanivadekar R, et al. Diagnostic role of stool culture and toxin detection in antibiotic associated diarrhoea due to Clostridium difficile in children. Indian J Med Res. 2005;122:518–24.

Mylonakis E, Ryan ET, Calderwood SB. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a review. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:525–33.

Kelly CP, LaMont JT. Clostridium difficile infection. Annu Rev Med. 1998;49:375–90.

Bignardi GE. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect. 1998;40:1–15.

Vaishnavi C, Bhasin D, Kochhar R, Singh K. Clostridium difficile toxin and faecal lactoferrin assays in adult patients. Microbes Infect. 2000;2:1827–30.

Karlstrom O, Fryklund B, Tullus K, Burman LG. A prospective nationwide study of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in Sweden. The Swedish C. difficile Study Group. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:141–5.

Dial S, Delaney JA, Schneider V, Suissa S. Proton pump inhibitor use and risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease defined by prescription for oral vancomycin therapy. CMAJ. 2006;175:745–8.

Kumar B, Vaishnavi C, Sandhu K, Kaur I. Clostridium difficile toxin assay in psoriatic patients. Trop Gastroenterol. 2004;25:164–7.

Zar FA, Bakkanagari SR, Moorthi KM, Davis MB. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:302–7.

Pepin J, Valiquette L, Alary ME, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a region of Quebec from 1991 to 2003: a changing pattern of disease severity. CMAJ. 2004;171:466–72.

Cohen SH, Gerding DN, Johnson S, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31:431–55.