Precambrian oxygen levels estimated from the biochemistry and physiology of early eukaryotes

Alexander, 1971, Size and shape, 59 Alexander, 1990, Size, speed and buoyancy adaptations in aquatic animals, Am. Zool., 30, 189, 10.1093/icb/30.1.189 Asada, 1980, Phylogenetic distribution of three types of superoxide dismutase in organisms and cell organelles, 136 Awramik, 1983, Filamentous fossil bacteria from the Archean of Western Australia, Precamb. Res., 20, 357, 10.1016/0301-9268(83)90081-5 Bannister, 1985, The presence of copper/zinc superoxide dismutase in the bacterium Photobacterium leiognathi, a likely case of gene transfer from eukaryotes to prokaryotes, 82, 149 Bannister, 1987, Aspects of the structure, function, and applications of superoxide dismutase, Crit. Rev. Biochem., 22, 111, 10.3109/10409238709083738 Barkai, 1988, An energy budget of the South Africa abalone Haliotis midae Linneaus, J. Moll. Stud., 54, 43, 10.1093/mollus/54.1.43 Bauchop, 1979, Rumen anaerobic fungi of cattle and sheep, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 38, 148, 10.1128/AEM.38.1.148-158.1979 Beer, 1919, Note on a spiral impression on Lower Vindhyan limestone, Rec. Geol. Surv. India., 50, 139 Belcik, 1968, Metabolic rate in certain sea anemones, Turtox News, 46, 178 Berger, 1987, Acetabularia: a giant single cell organism with valuable advantages for biology, Eur. J. Cell Biol., 44, 349 Berkner, 1965, On the origin and rise of oxygen concentration in the Earth's atmosphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 22, 225, 10.1175/1520-0469(1965)022<0225:OTOARO>2.0.CO;2 Berner, 1989, A new model for atmospheric oxygen over Phanerozoic time, Am. J. Sci., 289, 333, 10.2475/ajs.289.4.333 Berry, 1978, Progressive ventilation of the oceans—an explanation for the distribution of Lower Paleozoic black shales, Am. J. Sci., 278, 257, 10.2475/ajs.278.3.257 Bonotto, 1976, Recent advances in research on the marine alga Acetabularia, Adv. Mar. Biol., 14, 123, 10.1016/S0065-2881(08)60447-2 Brachet, 1965, Acetabularia, Endeavour, 24, 155 Brachet, 1955, Recherches sur les interactions biochimiques entre le noyau et le cytoplasme chez le organismes unicellulaires. II. Acetabularia mediterranea, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 18, 544, 10.1016/0006-3002(55)90149-9 Brown, 1984, Oxygen diffusion into the foot of the whelk Bullia digitalis (Dillwyn) and its possible significance in respiration, J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol., 79, 1, 10.1016/0022-0981(84)90026-1 Brown, 1986, Oxygen tensions in the pedal sinus and mantle cavity of Bullia during hypoxia, J. Moll. Stud., 52, 263, 10.1093/mollus/52.3.263 Brown, 1984, Effects of temperature on oxygen consumption in two closely-related whelks from different temperature regimes, J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol., 84, 145, 10.1016/0022-0981(84)90207-7 Cavalier-Smith, 1987, Eukaryotes with no mitochondria, Nature, 326, 332, 10.1038/326332a0 Cavalier-Smith, 1989, Archaebacteria and Archeozoa, Nature, 339, 100, 10.1038/339100a0 Chapman, 1983, Biological and biochemical effects of the development of an aerobic environment, 302 Cloud, 1976, Beginnings of biospheric evolution and their biogeochemical consequences, Paleobiology, 4, 351, 10.1017/S009483730000498X Colacino, 1984, Hemoglobin-containing cells of Neodasys (Gastrotricha, Chaetonotida)—II. Respiratory significance, Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 79A, 363, 10.1016/0300-9629(84)90528-0 Collins, 1983, New Burgess Shale fossil sites reveal Middle Cambrian faunal complex, Science, 222, 163, 10.1126/science.222.4620.163 Conway Morris, 1985, Cambrian Lagerstätten, their distribution and significance, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, B311, 49, 10.1098/rstb.1985.0138 Conway Morris, 1990, Articulated halkieriids from the Lower Cambrian of north Greenland, Nature, 345, 802, 10.1038/345802a0 Conway Morris, 1986, Middle Cambrian priapulids and other soft-bodied fossils from Utah and Spain, Univ. Kansas Paleontol. Contrib., 117, 1 Cornish-Bowden, 1985, The amino acid sequences of the copper/zinc superoxide dismutases from swordfish and Photobacter leiognathi confirm the predictions made from the compositions, Eur. J. Biochem., 151, 333, 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1985.tb09105.x Crawford, 1970, The age of the Vindhyan System of Peninsular India, Q. J. Geol. Soc. London, 125, 351, 10.1144/gsjgs.125.1.0351 Crawley, 1963, The fine structure of Acetabularia mediterranea, Exp. Cell Res., 32, 368, 10.1016/0014-4827(63)90112-5 Crawley, 1964, Cytoplasmic fine structure in Acetabularia, Exp. Cell Res., 35, 497, 10.1016/0014-4827(64)90138-7 De Zwaan, 1976, Facultative anaerobiosis in molluscs, 41, 133 Du Rulin, 1986, Discovery of megafossils in the Gaoyuzhuang Formation of the Changchengian System, Jixian. Acta Geol. Sin., 115 Duan Cheng-Hua, 1982, Late Precambrian algal megafossils Chuaria and Tawuia in some areas of eastern China, Alcheringa, 6, 57, 10.1080/03115518208565420 Dymek, 1988, Chemistry, petrology and origin of banded iron-formation lithologies from the 3800 Ma Isua Supercrustal Belt, West Greenland, Precambrian Res., 39, 247, 10.1016/0301-9268(88)90022-8 Fahey, 1984, Entamoeba histolytica: a eukaryote without glutathione metabolism, Science, 224, 68, 10.1126/science.6322306 Fairfield, 1983, Malaria parasites adopt host cell superoxide dismutase, Science, 221, 764, 10.1126/science.6348944 Feder, 1985, Cutaneous gas exchange in vertebrates: design, patterns, control and implications, Biol. Rev., 60, 1, 10.1111/j.1469-185X.1985.tb00416.x Feder, 1988, Ventilation and its effect on “infinite pool” exchangers, Am. Zool., 28, 973, 10.1093/icb/28.3.973 Fee, 1982, Is superoxide important in oxygen poisoning?, Trends Biol. Sci., 7, 84, 10.1016/0968-0004(82)90151-7 Gibor, 1966, Acetabularia, a useful giant cell, Sci. Am., 215, 118, 10.1038/scientificamerican1166-118 Graham, 1988, Ecological and evolutionary aspects of integumentary respiration, body size, diffusion and the Invertebrata, Am. Zool., 28, 1031, 10.1093/icb/28.3.1031 Graham, 1990, Ecological, evolutionary and physical factors influencing acquatic animal respiration, Am. Zool., 30, 137, 10.1093/icb/30.1.137 Grandstaff, 1976, A kinetic study of the dissolution of uraninite, Econ. Geol., 71, 1493, 10.2113/gsecongeo.71.8.1493 Grandstaff, 1980, Origin of uraniferous conglomerates at Elliot Lake, Canada and Witwatersrand, South Africa, implications for oxygen in the Precambrian atmosphere, Precamb. Res., 13, 1, 10.1016/0301-9268(80)90056-X Hämmerling, 1958, Growth and protein synthesis in nucleated and enucleated cells, Exp. Cell Res., 210 Hayes, 1983, Geochemical evidence bearing on the origin of aerobiosis, a speculative hypothesis, 291 Hemmingsen, 1960, Energy metabolism as related to body size and respiratory surfaces and its evolution, Rep. Steno Mem. Hosp. Nordisk Insulin-Lab., 9, 1 Hewitt, 1975, Superoxide dismutase in some obligately anaerobic bacteria, FEBS Lett., 50, 315, 10.1016/0014-5793(75)80518-7 Hochachka, 1980, Living without oxygen, 1 Hofmann, 1976, Precambrian microflora, Belcher Islands, Canada, significance and systematics, J. Paleontol., 50, 1040 Hofmann, 1979, Precambrian biota from the Little Dal Group, Mackenzie Mountains, northwestern Canada, Can. J. Earth Sci., 16, 150, 10.1139/e79-014 Holland, 1984, 582 Holland, 1990, A paleoweathering profile from Griqualand West, South Africa, evidence for a dramatic rise in atmospheric oxygen between 2.2 and 1.9 BYBP, Am. J. Sci., 290A, 1 Holland, 1989, The Flin Flon paleosol and the composition of the atmosphere 1.8 BY B.P., Am. J. Sci., 289, 362, 10.2475/ajs.289.4.362 Hou Xianguang, 1988, Discovery of Chengjiang fauna at Meishucun, Jinning, Yunnan, Acta Palaeontol. Sin., 27, 1 Jahnke, 1979, Oxygen as a factor in eykaryote evolution: some effects of low levels of oxygen on Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Orig. Life, 9, 329, 10.1007/BF00926825 Jahnke, 1983, Oxygen requirements for formation and activity of the sqalene epoxidase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, J. Bacteriol., 155, 488, 10.1128/JB.155.2.488-492.1983 Jarroll, 1989, Biochemistry and metabolism of Giardia, J. Protozool., 36, 190, 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1989.tb01073.x Jones, 1977, A respiratory rhythm in sea anemones, J. Exp. Biol., 68, 187, 10.1242/jeb.68.1.187 Kaneda, 1988, Lipid analysis of Giardia lamblia and its culture medium, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., 82, 83, 10.1080/00034983.1988.11812213 Kasting, 1987, Theoretical constraints on oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the Precambrian atmosphere, Precamb. Res., 34, 205, 10.1016/0301-9268(87)90001-5 Kasting, J.F., Holland, H.D. and Kump, L.R., in press. Atmospheric evolution, the rise of oxygen. In, J.W. Schopf and C. Klein (Editors), The Proterozoic Biosphere. A Multidisciplinary Study. Cambridge University Press, New York and Cambridge. Klein, 1987, Filamentous microfossils in the Early Proterozoic Transvaal Supergroup, their morphology, significance and paleoenvironmental, Precamb. Res., 36, 81, 10.1016/0301-9268(87)90018-0 Knoll, 1990, The environmental context of early metazoan evolution, Geol. Soc. Am., Abstr. Progr., 22, A128 Knoll, 1986, Secular variation in carbon isotope ratios from Upper Proterozoic successions of Svalbard and East Greenland, Nature, 321, 832, 10.1038/321832a0 Knoll, 1988, Distribution and diagenesis of microfossils from the Lower Proterozoic Duck Creek Dolomite, Western Australia, Precamb. Res., 38, 257, 10.1016/0301-9268(88)90005-8 Krogh, 1919, The rate of diffusion of gases through animal tissues, with some remarks on the coefficient of invasion, J. Physiol., 52, 391, 10.1113/jphysiol.1919.sp001838 Krogh, 1941, 172 Kump, 1988, Terrestrial feedback in atmospheric oxygen regulation by fire and phosphorus, Nature, 335, 152, 10.1038/335152a0 Lagunas, 1981, Is Saccharomyces cerevisiae a typical facultative anaerobe?, Trends Biol. Sci., 6, 201, 10.1016/0968-0004(81)90073-6 Leggett, 1981, Periodicity in the Early Palaeozoic marine realm, J. Geol. Soc. London, 138, 167, 10.1144/gsjgs.138.2.0167 Legros, 1973, Effects of insulin on oxygen uptake of Acetabularia mediterranea, Horm. Res., 4, 107, 10.1159/000178295 Legros, 1973, Action du 3′: 5′-AMP cyclique et de la théophylline sur la respiration d'Acetabularia mediterranea, Soc. Belge Physiol. Pharmacol., Arch. Int. Physiol. Biochim., 81, 164 Leunissen, 1986, Copper/zinc superoxide dismutase, how likely is gene transfer from ponyfish to Photobacterium leiognathi?, J. Mol. Evol., 23, 250, 10.1007/BF02115581 Martin, 1981, Evidence for a natural gene transfer from the ponyfish to its bioluminescent bacterial symbiont Photobacter leiognathi. The close relationship between bacteriocuprein and the copper-zinc superoxide dismutase of teleost fish, J. Biol. Chem., 256, 6080, 10.1016/S0021-9258(19)69131-3 May, 1989, Evolution and regulation of the gene encoding superoxide dismutase from the archaebacterium Halobacterium cutirubrum, J. Biol. Chem., 264, 12253, 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)63850-5 McMenamin, 1990, 217 Mendelssohn, 1981, Oxygen deficiency in Spartnia alterniflora roots: metabolic adaptation to anoxia, Science, 214, 439, 10.1126/science.214.4519.439 Naqvi, 1987, 223 Nes, 1980, 244 Ourisson, 1987, Prokaryotic hopanoids and other polyterpenoid sterol surrogates, Ann. Rev. Microbiol., 41, 301, 10.1146/annurev.mi.41.100187.001505 Peat, 1978, Proterozoic microfossils from the Roper Group, Northern Territory, Australia, BMR J. Geol. Geophys., 3, 1 Peters, 1983, The ecological implications of body size, 329 Raff, 1970, Respiratory mechanisms and the metazoan fossil record, Nature, 228, 1003, 10.1038/2281003a0 Rhoads, 1971, Evolutionary and ecologic significance of oxygen-deficient marine basins, Lethaia, 4, 413, 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1971.tb01864.x Robinson, 1983, The effects of body size and temperature on metabolic rate of organisms, Can. J. Zool., 61, 281, 10.1139/z83-037 Robison, 1969, Annelids from the Middle Cambrian Spence Shale of Utah, J. Paleontol., 43, 1169 Rogers, 1973, Mitochondrial and peroxismal contributions to the energy metabolism of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in continuous culture, J. Gen. Microbiol., 79, 205, 10.1099/00221287-79-2-205 Runnegar, 1982, Oxygen requirements, biology and phylogenetic significance of the late Precambrian worm Dickinsonia, and the evolution of the burrowing habit, Alcheringa, 6, 223, 10.1080/03115518208565415 Schidlowski, 1988, A 3,800-million-year isotopic record of life from carbon in sedimentary rocks, Nature, 333, 313, 10.1038/333313a0 Schopf, 1978, The evolution of the earliest cells, Sci. Am., 239, 110, 10.1038/scientificamerican0978-110 Schopf, 1987, Early Archean (3.3-billion to 3.4-billion-year-old) microfossils from Warrawoona Group, Australia, Science, 237, 70, 10.1126/science.11539686 Seilacher, 1989, Vendozoa: organismic construction in the Proterozoic biosphere, Lethaia, 22, 229, 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1989.tb01332.x Shick, 1977, Zooxanthellae-produced O2 promotes sea anemone expansion and eliminates oxygen debt under environmental hypoxia, J. Exp. Zool., 201, 149, 10.1002/jez.1402010118 Smith, 1974, Respiration of benthopelagic fishes, in situ measurements at 1230 meters, Science, 184, 72, 10.1126/science.184.4132.72 Sogin, 1989, Phylogenetic meaning of the kingdom concept: an unusual ribosomal RNA from Giardia lamblia, Science, 243, 75, 10.1126/science.2911720 Steffens, 1986, Primary structure of CuZn superoxide dismutase of Brassica oleracea proves homology with corresponding enzymes of animals, fungi and prokaryotes, Biol. Chem. Hoppe-Seyler, 367, 1007, 10.1515/bchm3.1986.367.2.1007 Summons, 1990, Molecular fossils and microfossils of prokaryotes and protists from Proterozoic sediments, Am. J. Sci., 290-A, 212 Summons, 1988, Petroleum geology and geochemistry of the Middle Proterozoic McArthur Basin, northern Australia: III. Composition of extractable hydrocarbons, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta., 52, 1747, 10.1016/0016-7037(88)90001-4 Sun Weiguo, 1987, Palaeontology and biostratigraphy of late Precambrian macroscopic colonial algae: Chuaria Walcott and Tawuia Hofmann, Palaeontographica, B203, 109 Tandon, 1977, Discovery of annelid and arthropod remains from Lower Vindhyan rocks (Precambrian) of central India, Geophytology, 7, 126 Theede, 1973, Comparative studies on the influence of oxygen deficiency and hydrogen sulphide on marine bottom invertebrates, Neth. J. Sea Res., 7, 244, 10.1016/0077-7579(73)90048-3 Thompson, 1985, Alternative biofacies model for dysaerobic communities, Lethaia, 18, 167, 10.1111/j.1502-3931.1985.tb00695.x Tielens, 1984, The energy metabolism of Fasciola hepatica during its development in the final host, Mol. Biochem. Parasitol., 13, 301, 10.1016/0166-6851(84)90121-X Towe, 1970, Oxygen-collagen priority and the early metazoan fossil record, 65, 781 Towe, 1981, Biochemical keys to the emergence of complex life, 297 Towe, 1988, Biochemical innovations, oxygen and earth history, Short Courses Paleontol., 1, 114, 10.1017/S2475263000000714 Towe, 1990, Aerobic respiration in the Archaean?, Nature, 348, 54, 10.1038/348054a0 Tunnicliffe, 1981, High species diversity and abundance of the epibenthic community in an oxygen-deficient basin, Nature, 294, 354, 10.1038/294354a0 Vossbrink, 1987, Ribosomal RNA sequence suggests microsporidia are extremely ancient eukaryotes, Nature, 326, 411, 10.1038/326411a0 Walker, 1983, Environmental evolution of the Archean-Early Proterozoic Earth, 260 Walter, 1979, Frutexites from stromatolites of the Gunflint Iron Formation of Canada and its biological affinities, Precamb. Res., 9, 23, 10.1016/0301-9268(79)90049-4 Walter, 1990, Coiled carbonaceous megafossils from the Middle Proterozoic of Jixian (Tianjin) and Montana, Am. J. Sci., 290-A, 133 Walter, 1976, Megascopic algae 1300 million years old from the Belt Supergroup, Montana: a reinterpretation of Walcott's Helminthoidichnites, J. Paleontol., 50, 872 West, 1984, Human physiology at extreme altitudes on Mount Everest, Science, 223, 784, 10.1126/science.6364351 West, 1986, Highest inhabitants in the world, Nature, 324, 517, 10.1038/324517a0 Weymouth, 1944, Total and tissue respiration in relation to body weight. A comparison of the kelp crab with other crustaceans and mammals, Physiol. Zool., 17, 50, 10.1086/physzool.17.1.30151829 Whitney, 1942, The relation of animal size to oxygen consumption in some fresh-water turbellarian worms, J. Exp. Biol., 19, 168, 10.1242/jeb.19.2.168 Wishner, 1990, Involvement of the oxygen minimum in benthic zonation on a deep seamount, Nature, 346, 57, 10.1038/346057a0 Zhang Zhongying, 1986, Clastic facies microfossils from the Chuanlinggou Formation (1800 Ma) near Jixian, North China, J. Micropalaeontol., 5, 9, 10.1144/jm.5.2.9