Physiological and biochemical responses of Theobroma cacao L. genotypes to flooding
Tóm tắt
Flooding is common in lowlands and areas with high rainfall or excessive irrigation. A major effect of flooding is the deprivation of O2 in the root zone, which affects several biochemical and morphophysiological plant processes. The objective of this study was to elucidate biochemical and physiological characteristics associated with tolerance to O2 deficiency in two clonal cacao genotypes. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse with two contrasting clones differing in flood tolerance: TSA-792 (tolerant) and TSH-774 (susceptible). Leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence, chemical composition and oxidative stress were assessed during 40 d for control and flooded plants. Flooding induced a decrease in net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration of both genotypes. In flood conditions, the flood-susceptible clone showed changes in chlorophyll fluorescence, reductions in chlorophyll content and increased activity of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase. Flooding also caused changes in macro- and micronutrients, total soluble sugars and starch concentrations in different plant organs of both genotypes. Response curves for the relationship between photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and net photosynthetic rate (P
N) for flooded plants were similar for both genotypes. In flood conditions, the flood-susceptible clone exhibited (1) nonstomatal limitations to photosynthesis since decreased in maximum potential quantum yield of PSII (Fv/Fm) values indicated possible damage to the PSII light-harvesting complex; (2) oxidative stress; (3) increased leaf chlorosis; and (4) a reduction in root carbohydrate levels. These stresses resulted in death of several plants after 30 d of flooding.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Almeida, A-A.F., Valle, R.R.: Ecophysiology of the cacao tree. — Braz. J. Plant Physiol. 19: 425–448, 2007.
Almeida, A.-A.F., Valle, R.R.: Cacao: ecophysiology of growth and production. — In: DaMatta, F.M. (ed.): Ecophysiology of Tropical Tree Crops. Pp. 37–70. Nova Science Publishers Inc., Hauppauge 2009.
Andersen, P.C., Lombard, P.B., Westwood, M.N.: Effect of root anaerobiosis on the water relations of several Pyrus species. — Physiol. Plant. 62: 245–252, 1984.
Armstrong, W.: Aeration in higher plants. — Adv. Bot. Res. 7: 225–232, 1979.
Barrett-Lennard, E.G., Ratingen, P.V., Mathie, M.H.: The developing pattern of damage in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) due to the combined stresses of salinity and hypoxia: experiments under controlled conditions suggest a methodology for plant selection. — Aust. J. Agr. Res. 50: 129–136, 1999.
Bartley, B.G.D.: The Genetic Diversity of Cacao and its Utilization. — CABI Publishing, Cambridge 2005.
Bertolde, F.Z., Almeida, A.-A. F., Corrêa, R.X., et al.: Molecular, physiological and morphological analysis of waterlogging tolerance in clonal genotypes of Theobroma cacao L. — Tree Physiol. 30: 56–67, 2010.
Björkman, O., Demmig, B.: Photon yield de O2 evolution and chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics at 77 K among vascular plants of diverse origins. — Planta 170: 489–504, 1987.
Braga, J.M., Defelipo, B.: [Spectrophotometric determination of phosphorus in soil extracts and plants.] — Rev. Ceres 21: 73–85, 1974. [In Portuguese.]
Campbell, J.J., Pan, J., Butcher, E.C.: Developmental switches in chemokine responses during T cell maturation. — J. Immunol. 163: 2353–2357, 1999.
Carvalho, C.J.R., Ishida, F.Y.: [Responses of peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth) to flooding young.] — Pesq. Agr. Bras. 37: 1231–1237, 2002. [In Portuguese.]
Chirkova, T.V., Gutman, T.S.: Physiological role of branch lenticels in willow and poplar under conditions of root anaerobiosis. — Sov. Plant Phys. 19: 289–295, 1972.
Clegg, K.M.: The application of the anthrone reagent to the estimation of starch in cereals. — J. Sci. Food Agr. 7: 40–44, 1956.
Crawford, R.M.M., Braendle, R.: Oxygen deprivation stress in a changing environment. — J. Exp. Bot. 47: 145–159, 1996.
Davies, F.S., Flore, J.A.: Short-term flooding effects on gas exchange and quantum yield of rabbiteye blueberry (Vaccinium ashei Reade). — Plant Physiol. 81: 289–292, 1986.
Dennis, E.S., Dolferus, R., Ellis, M., et al.: Molecular strategies for improving waterlogging tolerance in plants. — J. Exp. Bot. 51: 89–97, 2000.
Dogan S, Arslan, O., Ozen, F.: Polyphenol oxidase activity of oregano at different stages. — Food Chemistry 91: 341–345, 2005.
Drew, M.C.: Oxygen deficiency and root metabolism: injury and acclimation under hypoxia and anoxia. — Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 48: 223–250, 1997.
Farquhar, G.D., Sharkey, T.D.: Stomatal conductance and photosynthesis. — Ann. Rev. Plant Phys. 33: 317–345, 1982.
Folzer, H., Capelli, N., Dat, J., Badot, P.-M.: Molecular cloning and characterization of calmodulin genes in young oak seedlings (Quercus petraea L.) during early flooding stress. — Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1727: 213–219, 2005.
Foyer, C.H., Lelandais, M., Kunert, K.J.: Photooxidative stress in plants. — Physiol. Plant 92: 696–717, 1994.
Gomes, A.R.S., Kozlowski, T.T.: The effects of flooding on water relations and growth of Theobroma cacao var. catongo seedlings. — J. Hort. Sci. 61: 265–276, 1986.
Hiscox, J.D., Israelstam, G.F.: A method for the extraction of chlorophyll from leaf tissue without maceration. — Can. J. Bot. 57: 1332–1334, 1979.
Isaac, R.A., Kerber, J.O.: Atomic absorption and flame photometry: technique and uses in soil, plant and water analysis. — In: Walsh, L.M. ed. Instrumental Methods of Analysis of Soils and Plant Tissue. Pp. 17–37. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J., Madison 1971.
Jackson, M.L.: Nitrogen determinations for soil and plant tissue. — In: Jackson M.L. (ed.): Soil Chemical Analysis. Pp. 183–204, Prentice Hall Chiffis, Englewood 1958.
Jackson, M.B.: The impact of flooding stress on plants and crops. — http://www.plantstress.com/Articles/waterlogging_i/waterlog_i.htm, 2004.
Kozlowski, T.T.: Responses of woody plants to flooding and salinity. — Tree Physiol. Mon. 1: 1–29, 1997.
Kozlowski, T.T.: Acclimation and adaptive responses of woody plants to environmental stresses. — Bot. Rev. 68: 270–334, 2002.
Kozlowski, T.T., Pallardy, S.G.: Effect of flooding on water, carbohydrate, and mineral relations. — In: Kozlowski, T.T. (ed.): Flooding and Plant Growth. Pp. 165–193. Acad. Press, Orlando 1984.
Krause, G.H., Weis, E.: Chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthesis: the basis. — Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 42: 313–349, 1991.
Laing, W., Greer, D., Sun, O., Beets, P., Lowe, A., Payn, T.: Physiological impacts of Mg deficiency in Pinus radiata: growth and photosynthesis. — New Phytol. 146: 47–57, 2000.
Lopez, O.R., Kursar, T.A.: Flood tolerance of four tropical tree species. — Tree Physiol. 19: 925–932, 1999.
Maxwell, K., Johnson, G.N.: Chlorophyll fluorescence — a practical guide. — J. Exp. Bot. 51: 659–668, 2000.
Mccready, R.M., Guggolz, J., Silveira, V., Owens, H.S.: Determination of starch and amylase in vegetables. — Analyt. Chem. 22: 1156–1158, 1950.
Medri, M.E.: [Aspects morpho-anatomical and physiological Peltophorum dubium (Spr.) Dr. Taub. subject to flooding and the application of etrel.] — Rev. Bras. Bot. 21: 261–267, 1998. [In Portuguese.]
Mielke, M.S., Almeida, A-A.F., Gomes, F.P., et al.: Leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence and growth responses of Genipa americana seedlings to soil flooding. — Environ. Exp. Bot. 50: 221–231, 2003.
Mielke, M.S., Almeida, A-A.F., Gomes, F.P., et al.: Effects of soil flooding on leaf gas exchange and growth of two neotropical pioneer tree species. — New Forest. 29: 161–168, 2005.
Oliveira, J.G. de, Alves, P.L.C.A., Magalhães, A.C.: The effect of chilling on the photosynthetic activity in coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) seedlings. The protective action of chloroplastid pigments. — Braz. J. Plant Physiol. 14: 95–104, 2002.
Pachepsky, L.B., Acock, B.: An adequate model of photosynthesis — II. Dependence of parameters on environmental factors. — Agric. Syst. 50, 227-238, 1996.
Pezeshki, S.R.: Differences in patterns of photosynthetic responses to hypoxia in flood-tolerant and flood-sensitive tree species. — Photosynthetica 28: 423–430, 1993.
Pezeshki, S.R.: Responses of baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) seedlings to hypoxia: leaf protein content, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase activity and photosynthesis. — Photosynthetica 30: 59–68, 1994.
Pezeshki, S.R., Pardue, J.H., DeLaune, R.D.: Leaf gas exchange and growth of flood-tolerant and flood-sensitive tree species to soil oxygen deficiency. — Tree Physiol. 16: 453–458, 1996.
Pezeshki, S.R.: Wetland plant responses to soil flooding. — Environ. Exp. Bot. 46: 299–312, 2001.
Pirovani, C.P., Carvalho, H.A.S., Machado, R.C.R., et al.: Protein extraction for proteome analysis from cacao leaves and meristems, organs infected by Moniliophthora perniciosa, the causal agent of the witches’ broom disease. — Electrophoresis 29: 2391–2401, 2008.
Ponnamperuma, F.N.: The chemistry of submerged soils. — Adv. Agron. 24: 29–96, 1972.
Sánchez, E., Soto, J.M., Garcia, P.C., et al.: Phenolic compounds and oxidative metabolism in green bean plants under nitrogen toxicity. — Austr. J. Plant Physiol. 27: 973–978, 2000.
Schaffer, B., Andersen, P.C., Ploetz, R.C.: Responses of fruit crops to flooding. — Hort. Rev. 13: 257–313, 1992.
Siegel, B.Z.: Plant peroxidases — an organismic perspective. — Plant Growth Regulation 12: 303–312, 1993.
Smethurst, C.F., Shabala, S.: Screening methods for waterlogging tolerance in lucerne: comparative analysis of waterlogging effects on chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthesis, biomass and chlorophyll content. — Funct. Plant Biol. 30: 335–343, 2003.
Souza, C.A.F., Sodek, L.: The metabolic response of plants to oxygen deficiency. — Braz. J. Plant Physiol. 14: 83–94, 2002.
Souza, J.O., Jr.: [Substrates and Fertilization for Cocoa Seedlings.] — PhD. Thesis, Universid. São Paulo, São Paulo 2007. [In Portuguese.]
Steel, R.G.D., Torrie, J.H.: Principles and Procedures of Statistics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York 1980.
Vartapetian, B. B.: Flood-sensitive plants under primary and secondary anoxia: ultrastructural and metabolic responses. — In: Jackson, M.B., Davis, D.D., Lambers, H. (ed.): Plant Life under Oxygen Deprivation: Ecology, Physiology and Biochemistry. Pp. 201–216. SPB Academic, The Hague 1996.
Vartapetian, B.B., Jackson, M.B.: Plant adaptations to anaerobic stress. — Ann. Bot. 79(Suppl. A): 3–20, 1997.
Vaughn, K.C., Duke, S.O.: Function of polyphenol oxidase in higher plants. — Physiol. Plant 60: 106–112, 1984.
von Caemmerer, S., Farquhar, G.D.: Some relationships between the biochemistry of photosynthesis and the gas exchange of leaves. — Planta 153: 376–387, 1981.
Wellburn, A.R.: The spectral determination of chlorophylls a and b, as well as total carotenoids, using various solvents with spectrophotometers of different resolution. — J. Plant. Physiol. 144: 307–313, 1994.
Yordanova, R.Y., Christov, K.N., Popova, L.P.: Antioxidative enzymes in barley plants subjected to soil flooding. — Environ. Exp. Bot. 51: 93–101, 2004.
Yu, Q., Rengel, Z.: Waterlogging influences plant growth and activities of superoxide dismutases in narrow-leafed lupine and transgenic tobacco plants. — J. Plant Physiol. 155: 431–438, 1999.