Pharmacological strategies for the prevention of perinatal brain damage

Seminars in Neonatology - Tập 3 - Trang 87-101 - 1998
Alistair J. Gunn1, Peter D. Gluckman1
1School of Medicine, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand

Tài liệu tham khảo

Gunn, 1997, Changes in risk factors for hypoxicischaemic seizures in term infants, Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol, 37, 36, 10.1111/j.1479-828X.1997.tb02214.x Gunn, 1992, Cerebral histological and electrophysiological changes after asphyxia in fetal sheep, Pediatr Res, 31, 486, 10.1203/00006450-199205000-00016 Mallard, 1992, Transient umbilical cord occlusion causes hippocampal damage in the fetal sheep, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 167, 1423, 10.1016/S0002-9378(11)91728-1 de Haan, 1997, Brief repeated umbilical cord occlusions cause sustained cytotoxic edema and focal infarcts in near-term fetal lambs, Pediatr Res, 41, 96, 10.1203/00006450-199701000-00015 Rothman, 1995, Excitotoxicity and the NMDA receptor—still lethal after eight years, Trends Neurosci, 18, 57, 10.1016/0166-2236(95)93869-Y Choi, 1995, Calcium: still center-stage in hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death, Trends Neurosci, 18, 58, 10.1016/0166-2236(95)93870-4 Goldberg, 1993, Combined oxygen and glucose deprivation in cortical cell culture—calciumdependent and calcium-independent mechanisms of neuronal injury, J Neurosci, 13, 3510, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.13-08-03510.1993 Macmanus, 1993, Global ischemia can cause DNA fragmentation indicative of apoptosis in rat brain, Neurosci Lett, 164, 89, 10.1016/0304-3940(93)90864-H Okamoto, 1993, Apoptosis as an underlying mechanism of delayed neuronal death, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 13 Li, 1993, Treatment with an AMPA antagonist 12 hours following severe normothermic forebrain ischemia prevents CA1 neuronal injury, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 13, 933, 10.1038/jcbfm.1993.116 Tan, 1996, Accumulation of cytotoxins during the development of seizures and edema after hypoxic-ischemic injury in late gestation fetal sheep, Pediatr Res, 39, 791, 10.1203/00006450-199605000-00008 Giulian, 1990, Inhibition of mononuclear phagocytes reduces ischemic injury in the spinal cord, Ann Neurol, 27, 33, 10.1002/ana.410270107 Lees, 1993, The possible contribution of microglia and macrophages to delayed neuronal death after ischemia, J Neurol Sci, 114, 119, 10.1016/0022-510X(93)90285-7 Williams, 1991, The time course of intracellular edema and epileptiform activity following prenatal cerebral ischemia in sheep, Stroke, 22, 516, 10.1161/01.STR.22.4.516 Gunn, 1997, Dramatic neuronal rescue with prolonged selective head cooling after ischemia in fetal sheep, J Clin Invest, 99, 248, 10.1172/JCI119153 Giussani, 1993, Afferent and efferent components of the cardiovascular reflex responses to acute hypoxia in term fetal sheep, J Physiol (Lond), 461, 431, 10.1113/jphysiol.1993.sp019521 Heron, 1994, Effects of an A1 adenosine receptor agonist on the neurochemical, behavioral and histological consequences of ischemia, Brain Res, 641, 217, 10.1016/0006-8993(94)90149-X Williams, 1995, The role of the growth factors IGF-1 and TGF beta 1 after hypoxic-ischemic brain injury, Ann NY Acad Sci, 765, 306, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1995.tb16592.x Nieto-Sampedro, 1982, Brain injury causes a time-dependent increase in neurotrophic activity at the lesion site, Science, 217, 860, 10.1126/science.7100931 Williams, 1992, Outcome after ischemia in the developing sheep brain: an electroencephalographic and histological study, Ann Neurol, 31, 14, 10.1002/ana.410310104 Beilharz, 1995, Mechanisms of delayed cell death following hypoxic-ischemic injury in the immature rat: evidence for apoptosis during selective neuronal loss, Brain Res, 29, 1, 10.1016/0169-328X(94)00217-3 Kirino, 1984, Fine structural nature of delayed neuronal death following ischemia in the gerbil hippocampus, Acta Neuropathol Berl, 62, 209, 10.1007/BF00691854 Andine, 1988, Calcium uptake evoked by electrical stimulation is enhanced postis-chemically and precedes delayed neuronal death in CA1 of rat hippocampus: involvement of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 8, 799, 10.1038/jcbfm.1988.135 Mehmet, 1994, Increased apoptosis in the cingulate sulcus of newborn piglets following transient hypoxia-ischaemia is related to the degree of high energy phosphate depletion during the insult, Neurosci Lett, 181, 121, 10.1016/0304-3940(94)90574-6 Petito, 1987, Delayed hippocampal damage in humans following cardiorespiratory arrest, Neurology, 37, 1281, 10.1212/WNL.37.8.1281 Reynolds, 1991, New non-invasive methods for the investigation of cerebral oxidative metabolism and haemodynamics in newborn infants, Ann Med, 23, 681, 10.3109/07853899109148103 Roth, 1992, Relation between cerebral oxidative metabolism following birth asphyxia, and neurodevelopmental outcome and brain growth at one year, Dev Med Child Neurol, 34, 285, 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1992.tb11432.x Van Bel, 1993, Changes in cerebral hemodynamics and oxygenation in the first 24 hours after birth asphyxia, Pediatrics, 92, 365 Gunn, 1995, Changes in cortical impedance during perinatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), Pediatr Res, 37, 208A Wertheim, 1994, Prognostic value of continuous electroencephalographic recording in full term infants with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy, Arch Dis Child, 71, F97, 10.1136/fn.71.2.F97 Lorek, 1994, Delayed (‘secondary’) cerebral energy failure after acute hypoxia-ischemia in the newborn piglet: continuous 48-hour studies by phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy, Pediatr Res, 36, 699, 10.1203/00006450-199412000-00003 Williams, 1990, Delayed seizures occurring with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in the fetal sheep, Pediatr Res, 27, 561, 10.1203/00006450-199006000-00004 Marks, 1996, Delayed vasodilation and altered oxygenation following cerebral ischemia in fetal sheep, Pediatr Res, 39, 48, 10.1203/00006450-199601000-00007 Kerr, 1987, Apoptosis, 93 Lo, 1995, Apoptosis in the nervous system: morphological features, methods, pathology, and prevention, Arch Histol Cytol, 58, 139, 10.1679/aohc.58.139 Edwards, 1995, Specific inhibition of apoptosis after cerebral hypoxia-ischaemia by moderate post-insult hypothermia, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 217, 1193, 10.1006/bbrc.1995.2895 Yue, 1997, Apoptosis and necrosis in the newborn piglet brain following transient cerebral hypoxia-ischaemia, Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol, 23, 16, 10.1111/j.1365-2990.1997.tb01181.x Raff, 1992, Social controls on cell survival and cell death, Nature, 356, 397, 10.1038/356397a0 Larsen, 1994, The BCL2 gene is the prototype of a gene family that controls programmed cell death (apoptosis), Ann Genet Paris, 37, 121 MacGibbon, 1997, BAX expression in mammalian neurons undergoing apoptosis, and in Alzheimers disease hippocampus, Brain Res, 750, 223, 10.1016/S0006-8993(96)01351-0 Jung, 1996, Suppression of interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme-mediated cell death by insulin-like growth factor, J Biol Chem, 271, 5112, 10.1074/jbc.271.9.5112 Troy, 1996, The contrasting roles of ICE family proteases and interleukin-1beta in apoptosis induced by trophic factor withdrawal and by copper/zinc superoxide dismutase down-regulation, 93, 5635 Sirimanne, 1994, Two models for determining the mechanisms of damage and repair after hypoxic-ischemic injury in the developing rat brain, J Neurosci Methods, 55, 7, 10.1016/0165-0270(94)90034-5 Gunn, 1994, Flunarizine, a calcium channel antagonist, is partially prophylactically neuroprotective in hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in the fetal sheep, Pediatr Res, 35, 657, 10.1203/00006450-199406000-00007 Minamisawa, 1990, The influence of mild body and brain hypothermia on ischemic brain damage, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 10, 365, 10.1038/jcbfm.1990.66 Zhang, 1997, Continuous monitoring and regulating of brain temperature in the conscious and freely moving ischemic gerbil—effect of MK-801 on delayed neuronal death in hippocampal CA1, J Neurosci Res, 47, 440, 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4547(19970215)47:4<440::AID-JNR9>3.0.CO;2-E Hayward, 1993, Brain temperature and the neuroprotective action of enadoline and dizocilpine in the gerbil model of global ischaemia, Eur J Pharmacol, 236, 247, 10.1016/0014-2999(93)90595-9 Ikonomidou, 1989, Hypothermia enhances protective effect of MK-801 against hypoxic/ischemic brain damage in infant rats, Brain Res, 487, 184, 10.1016/0006-8993(89)90956-6 Sirimanne, 1996, The effect of prolonged modification of cerebral temperature on outcome following hypoxic ischemic injury in the infant rat, Pediatr Res, 39, 591, 10.1203/00006450-199604000-00005 Colbourne, 1995, Delayed postischemic hypothermia: a six month survival study using behavioral and histological assessments of neuroprotection, J Neurosci, 15, 7250, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.15-11-07250.1995 Nurse, 1996, Neuroprotection after several days of mild, drug-induced hypothermia, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 16, 474, 10.1097/00004647-199605000-00014 Coimbra, 1996, Diminished neuronal damage in the rat brain by late treatment with the antipyretic drug dipyrone or cooling following cerebral ischemia, Acta Neuropathol (Berl), 92, 447, 10.1007/s004010050545 Moyer, 1992, Spontaneous cerebral hypothermia diminishes focal infarction in rat brain, Stroke, 23, 1812, 10.1161/01.STR.23.12.1812 Vlessis, 1990, Effect of peroxide, sodium, and calcium on brain mitochondrial respiration in vitro: potential role in cerebral ischemia and reperfusion, J Neurochem, 54, 1412, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1990.tb01977.x Uenohara, 1988, Correlation among lipid peroxidation, brain energy metabolism and brain oedema in cerebral ischaemia, Neurol Res, 10, 194, 10.1080/01616412.1988.11739840 rosenberg, 1989, The role of oxygen free radicals in postasphyxia cerebral hypoperfusion in newborn lambs, Pediatr Res, 26, 215, 10.1203/00006450-198909000-00012 Pellegrini-Giampietro, 1990, Excitatory amino acid release and free radical formation may cooperate in the genesis of ischemia-induced neuronal damage, J Neurosci, 10, 1035, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.10-03-01035.1990 Dugan, 1995, Mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species in cortical neurons following exposure to N-methyl-D-aspartate, J Neurosci, 15, 6377, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.15-10-06377.1995 Matsuo, 1994, Correlation between myeloperoxidase-quantified neutrophil accumulation and ischemic brain injury in the rat—effects of neutrophil depletion, Stroke, 25, 1469, 10.1161/01.STR.25.7.1469 Ikeda, 1990, The molecular basis of brain injury and brain edema: the role of oxygen free radicals, Neurosurgery, 27, 1, 10.1227/00006123-199007000-00001 Palmer, 1993, Allopurinal administered after inducing hypoxia-ischemia reduces brain injury in 7-day-old rats, Pediatr Res, 33, 405 Williams, 1992, Allopurinal preserves cerebral energy metabolism during perinatal hypoxia-ischemia—a P-31 NMR study in unanesthetized immature rats, Neurosci Lett, 144, 103, 10.1016/0304-3940(92)90726-N Palmer, 1994, Deferoxamine posttreatment reduces ischemic brain injury in neonatal rats, Stroke, 25, 1039, 10.1161/01.STR.25.5.1039 Davis, 1997, Parallel antioxidant and antiexcitotoxic therapy improves outcome after incomplete global cerebral ischemia in dogs, Stroke, 28, 198, 10.1161/01.STR.28.1.198 Truelove, 1994, Neuronal protection with superoxide dismutase in repetitive forebrain ischemia in gerbils, Free Rad Biol Med, 17, 445, 10.1016/0891-5849(94)90171-6 Thordstein, 1993, Scavengers of free oxygen radicals in combination with magnesium ameliorate perinatal hypoxic-ischemic brain damage in the rat, Pediatr Res, 34, 23, 10.1203/00006450-199307000-00006 Mujsce, 1990, Mannitol therapy in perinatal hypoxic-ischemic brain damage in rats, Stroke, 21, 1210, 10.1161/01.STR.21.8.1210 Carolei, 1991, Monosialoganglioside GM1 in cerebral ischemia, Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev, 3, 134 Tan, 1993, Pretreatment with monosialoganglioside GM1 protects the brain of fetal sheep against hypoxicischemic injury without causing systemic compromise, Pediatr Res, 34, 18, 10.1203/00006450-199307000-00005 Tan, 1994, Monosialoganglioside GM(1) treatment of a hypoxicischemic episode reduces the vulnerability of the fetal sheep brain to subsequent injuries, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 170, 663, 10.1016/S0002-9378(94)70245-4 Simon, 1993, GM1 ganglioside treatment of focal ischemia—a dose-response and microdialysis study, J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 265, 24 Siesjo, 1995, Mechanisms of secondary brain damage in global and focal ischemia: a speculative synthesis, J Neurotrauma, 12, 943, 10.1089/neu.1995.12.943 Xie, 1995, Ion channel involvement in anoxic depolarization induced by cardiac arrest in rat brain, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 15, 587, 10.1038/jcbfm.1995.72 Lu, 1990, Cerebroprotective effects of flunarizine in an experimental rat model of cardiac arrest, Am J Emerg Med, 8, 1, 10.1016/0735-6757(90)90284-7 Gunn, 1989, The neuroprotective actions of a calcium channel antagonist, flunarizine, in the infant rat, Pediatr Res, 25, 573, 10.1203/00006450-198906000-00003 Gunn, 1991, Flunarizine, a calcium channel antagonist, is not neuroprotective when given after hypoxia-ischemia in the infant rat, Dev Pharmacol Ther, 17, 205, 10.1159/000457524 Levene, 1990, The use of a calcium channel blocker, nicardipine, for severely asphyxiated newborn infants, Dev Med Child Neurol, 32, 567, 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1990.tb08540.x Andine, 1991, Intra- and extracellular changes of amino acids in the cerebral cortex of the neonatal rat during hypoxic-ischemia, Brain Res Dev Brain Res, 64, 115, 10.1016/0165-3806(91)90214-4 Silverstein, 1991, Effect of depolarization on striatal amino acid efflux in perinatal rats: an in vivo microdialysis study, Neurosci Lett, 128, 133, 10.1016/0304-3940(91)90777-Q McDonald, 1988, Neurotoxicity of N-methyl-D-aspartate is markedly enhanced in developing rat central nervous system, Brain Res, 459, 200, 10.1016/0006-8993(88)90306-X Marret, 1995, Effect of ibotenate on brain development: an excitotoxic mouse model of microgyria and posthypoxic-like lesions, J Neuropathol Exp Neurol, 54, 358, 10.1097/00005072-199505000-00009 Pukasundvall, 1997, Brain injury after hypoxia-ischemia in newborn rats—relationship to extracellular levels of excitatory amino acids and cysteine, Brain Res, 750, 325, 10.1016/S0006-8993(97)00024-3 Kjellmer, 1989, Extracellular increase of hypoxanthine and xanthine in the cortex and basal ganglia of fetal lambs during hypoxia-ischemia, Brain Res, 478, 241, 10.1016/0006-8993(89)91504-7 Williams, 1990, Perinatal asphyxic brain damage—the potential for therapeutic intervention, 145 McManigle, 1994, Potentiation of MK-801-induced breathing impairment by 2,3-dihydroxy-6-nitro-7-sulfamoylbenzo(F)quinoxaline, Eur J Pharmacol, 252, 11, 10.1016/0014-2999(94)90569-X Shuaib, 1994, Progressive decrease in extracellular GABA concentrations in the post-ischemic period in the stratum: a microdialysis study, Brain Res, 666, 99, 10.1016/0006-8993(94)90287-9 Mallard, 1995, Repeated asphyxia causes loss of striatal projection neurons in the fetal sheep brain, Neuroscience, 65, 827, 10.1016/0306-4522(94)00504-X Tan, 1992, Suppression of postischemic epileptiform activity with MK-801 improves neural outcome in fetal sheep, Ann Neurol, 32, 677, 10.1002/ana.410320511 Dietrich, 1995, Effect of delayed MK801 (dizocilpine) treatment with or without immediate postischemic hypothermia on chronic neuronal survival after global forebrain ischemia in rats, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 15, 960, 10.1038/jcbfm.1995.122 Hagberg, 1994, Hypoxiaischemia in the neonatal rat brain: Histopathology after post-treatment with NMDA and non-NMDA receptor antagonists, Biol Neonate, 66, 205, 10.1159/000244109 Lin, 1993, MK-801 (dizocilpine) protects the brain from repeated normothermic global ischemic insults in the rat, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 13, 925, 10.1038/jcbfm.1993.115 Murase, 1993, Limited but evident protective effects of MK-801 and pentobarbital on neuronal damage following forebrain ischemia in the gerbil under normothermic conditions, Neurosci Lett, 149, 229, 10.1016/0304-3940(93)90778-J von Lubitz, 1993, MK-801 is neuroprotective but does not improve survival in severe forebrain ischemia, Eur J Pharmacol, 233, 95, 10.1016/0014-2999(93)90353-J Lyden, 1992, Protective effect of synaptic inhibition during cerebral ischemia in rats and rabbits, Stroke, 23, 1463, 10.1161/01.STR.23.10.1463 McDonald, 1990, Magnesium reduces N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-mediated brain injury in perinatal rats, Neurosci Lett, 109, 234, 10.1016/0304-3940(90)90569-U Nelson, 1995, Can magnesium sulfate reduce the risk of cerebral palsy in very low birthweight infants?, Pediatrics, 95, 263 Kuban, 1992, Maternal toxemia is associated with reduced incidence of germinal matrix hemorrhage in premature babies, J Child Neurol, 7, 70, 10.1177/088307389200700113 Leviton, 1997, Maternal receipt of magnesium sulfate does not seem to reduce the risk of neonatal white matter damage, Pediatrics, 99, E21, 10.1542/peds.99.4.e2 Mason, 1994, Magnesium is more efficacious than phenytoin in reducing N-methyl-D-aspartate seizures in rats, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 171, 999, 10.1016/0002-9378(94)90022-1 de Haan, 1997, Magnesium sulfate therapy during asphyxia in near-term fetal lambs does not compromise the fetus but does not reduce cerebral injury, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 176, 18, 10.1016/S0002-9378(97)80005-1 Gunn, 1996, Magnesium sulfate therapy is not neuroprotective after moderate hypoxia-ischemia in the immature rat, Prenatal Neonatal Med, 1, 155 Penrice, 1997, Magnesium sulfate after transient hypoxia-ischemia fails to prevent delayed cerebral energy failure in the newborn piglet, Pediatr Res, 41, 443, 10.1203/00006450-199703000-00024 Levene, 1995, Acute effects of two different doses of magnesium sulphate in infants with birth asphyxia, Arch Dis Child, 73, F174, 10.1136/fn.73.3.F174 Southan, 1996, Selective pharmacological inhibition of distinct nitric oxide synthase isoforms, Biochem Pharmacol, 51, 383, 10.1016/0006-2952(95)02099-3 Marks, 1996, Nitric oxide synthase inhibition attenuates delayed vasodilation and increased injury following cerebral ischemia in fetal sheep, Pediatr Res, 40, 185, 10.1203/00006450-199608000-00002 Bredt, 1990, Localization of nitric oxide synthase indicating a neural role for nitric oxide, Nature, 347, 768, 10.1038/347768a0 Faraci, 1994, Nitric oxide and the cerebral circulation, Stroke, 25, 692, 10.1161/01.STR.25.3.692 Lefer, 1993, Pharmacology of the endothelium in ischemia-reperfusion and circulatory shock, Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol, 33, 71, 10.1146/annurev.pa.33.040193.000443 Schultz, 1985, Ovine placental lactogen inhibits glucagon-induced glycogenolysis in fetal rat hepatocytes, Endocrinology, 116, 1275, 10.1210/endo-116-4-1275 Grace, 1994, Ischaemia-reperfusion injury, Br J Surg, 81, 637, 10.1002/bjs.1800810504 Engelman, 1995, Constitutive nitric oxide release is impaired after ischaemia and reperfusion, J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 110, 1047, 10.1016/S0022-5223(05)80173-4 Faraci, 1995, Response of cerebral blood vessels to an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, Am J Physiol-Heart Circ Phy, 38, H1522, 10.1152/ajpheart.1995.269.5.H1522 Tanaka, 1993, Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis impairs autoregulation of local cerebral blood flow in the rat, NeuroReport, 4, 267, 10.1097/00001756-199303000-00010 Green, 1996, The role of nitric oxide in the cardiovascular responses to acute hypoxia in the late gestation sheep fetus, J Physiol (Lond), 497, 271, 10.1113/jphysiol.1996.sp021766 Hamada, 1995, Effects of central inhibition of nitric oxide synthase on focal cerebral ischemia in rats, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 15, 779, 10.1038/jcbfm.1995.98 Black, 1995, Expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase corresponds to regions of selective vulnerability to hypoxia-ischaemia in the developing rat brain, Neurobiol Dis, 2, 145, 10.1006/nbdi.1995.0016 Dalkara, 1994, Dual role of nitric oxide in focal ischaemia, Neuropharmacology, 33, 1447, 10.1016/0028-3908(94)90048-5 Garthwaite, 1991, Glutamate, nitric oxide and cell-cell signalling in the nervous system, Trends Neurosci, 14, 60, 10.1016/0166-2236(91)90022-M Iadecola, 1995, Inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase ameliorates cerebral ischemia damage, Am J Physiol-Regul Integr C, 37, R286, 10.1152/ajpregu.1995.268.1.R286 Mitrovic, 1995, Nitric oxide induces necrotic but not apoptotic cell death in oligodendrocytes, Neuroscience, 65, 531, 10.1016/0306-4522(94)00491-M Prehn, 1993, Transforming growth factor-beta 1 prevents glutamate neurotoxicity in rat neocortical cultures and protects mouse neocortex from ischemic injury in vivo, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 13, 521, 10.1038/jcbfm.1993.67 McNeill, 1994, Neuronal rescue with transforming growth factor-beta(1) after hypoxic-ischaemic brain injury, NeuroReport, 5, 901, 10.1097/00001756-199404000-00012 Tuor, 1996, Protection against hypoxic-ischemic damage with corticosterone and dexamethasone—inhibition of effect by a glucocorticoid antagonist, ru38486, Brain Res, 743, 258, 10.1016/S0006-8993(96)01054-2 Chumans, 1993, A comparison of the protective effect of dexamethasone to other potential prophylactic agents in a neonatal rat model of cerebral hypoxia-ischemia, J Neurosurg, 79, 414, 10.3171/jns.1993.79.3.0414 Tuor, 1993, Glucocorticoid prevention of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic damage: role of hyperglycemia and antioxidant enzymes, Brain Res, 604, 165, 10.1016/0006-8993(93)90364-S Wass, 1996, Insulin treatment of corticosteroid-associated hyperglycemia and its effect on outcome after forebrain ischemia in rats, Anesthesiology, 84, 644, 10.1097/00000542-199603000-00020 Vannucci, 1994, Developmental expression of GLUT1 and GLUT3 glucose transporters in rat brain, J Neurochem, 62, 240, 10.1046/j.1471-4159.1994.62010240.x LeBlanc, 1993, Glucose affects the severity of hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in newborn pigs, Stroke, 24, 1055, 10.1161/01.STR.24.7.1055 Salokorpi, 1997, Randomized study of the effect of antenatal dexamethasone on growth and development of premature children at the corrected age of 2 years, Acta Paediatrica, 86, 294, 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1997.tb08893.x Nilsson, 1991, Release of inhibitory neurotransmitters in response to anoxia in turtle brain, Am J Physiol, 261, R32 Lyden, 1994, Combination therapy protects ischemic brain in rats. A glutamate antagonist plus a gamma-aminobutyric acid agonist, Stroke, 25, 189, 10.1161/01.STR.25.1.189 Madden, 1994, Effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid modulation on neuronal ischemia in rabbits, Stroke, 25, 2271, 10.1161/01.STR.25.11.2271 Zhou, 1994, Effects of theophylline and cyclohexyladenosine on brain injury following normo- and hyperglycemic ischemia—a histopathologic study in the rat, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 14, 166, 10.1038/jcbfm.1994.22 Schubert, 1993, Cerebral protection by adenosine, Acta Neurochir Suppl Wien, 57, 80 Dragunow, 1988, Neuroprotective effects of adenosine, TIPS, 9, 193 von Lubitz, 1994, Adenosine A(3) receptor stimulation and cerebral ischemia, Eur J Pharmacol, 263, 59, 10.1016/0014-2999(94)90523-1 Araki, 1989, The adenosine analogue and cerebral protecting agent, AMG-1, has no effect on delayed neuronal death following ischemia, Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol, 11, 731 Dragunow, 1994, Immediate-early gene protein expression in neurons undergoing delayed death, but not necrosis, following hypoxic-ischaemic injury to the young rat brain, Brain Res Mol Brain Res, 25, 19, 10.1016/0169-328X(94)90274-7 Yin, 1994, Cell death of spinal motoneurons in the chick embryo following deafferentiation: rescue effects of tissue extracts, soluble proteins, and neurotrophic agents, J Neurosci, 14, 7629, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-12-07629.1994 Galli, 1995, Apoptosis in cerebellar granule cells is blocked by high KCl, forskolin, and IGF-1 through distinct mechanisms of action: the involvement of intracellular calcium and RNA synthesis, J Neurosci, 15, 1172, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.15-02-01172.1995 Gluckman, 1993, The role of the insuline-like growth factor system in neuronal rescue, Ann NY Acad Sci, 692, 138, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb26212.x Yamaguchi, 1991, Increase of extracellular insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) concentration following electrolytical lesion in rat hippocampus, Neurosci Lett, 128, 273, 10.1016/0304-3940(91)90278-2 Gluckman, 1992, A role for IGF-1 in the rescue of CNS neurons following hypoxic-ischemic injury, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 182, 593, 10.1016/0006-291X(92)91774-K Klempt, 1992, Expression of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-2 (IGFBP-2) following transient hypoxia-ischemia in the infant rat brain, Brain Res, 15, 55, 10.1016/0169-328X(92)90151-Z Beilharz, 1995, Insulin-like growth factor II is induced during wound repair following hypoxic-ischemic injury in the developing rat brain, Brain Res Mol Brain Res, 29, 81, 10.1016/0169-328X(94)00232-4 Beilharz, 1993, Differential expression of insulin-like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBP) 4 and 5 mRNA in the rat brain after transient hypoxic-ischemic injury, Brain Res Mol Brain Res, 18, 209, 10.1016/0169-328X(93)90191-Q Pons, 1992, Basic fibroblast growth factor modulates insulin-like growth factor-1, its receptor, and its binding proteins in hypothalamic cell cultures, Endocrinology, 131, 2271, 10.1210/en.131.5.2271 Guan, 1993, The effects of IGF-1 treatment after hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in adult rats, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 13, 609, 10.1038/jcbfm.1993.79 Guan, 1996, The movement of IGF-1 into the brain parenchyma after hypoxic-ischemic injury, NeuroReport, 7, 632, 10.1097/00001756-199601310-00061 Johnston, 1996, Insulin-like growth factor-1 is a potent neuronal rescue agent following hypoxic-ischemic injury in fetal lambs, J Clin Invest, 97, 300, 10.1172/JCI118416 Guan, 1996, The effects of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1, IGF-2, and Des-IGF-1 on neuronal loss after hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in adult rats—evidence for a role for IGF binding proteins, Endocrinology, 137, 893, 10.1210/en.137.3.893 Hellstrom Westas, 1995, Predictive value of early continuous amplitude integrated EEG recordings on outcome after severe birth asphyxia in full term infants, Arch Dis Child, 72, F34, 10.1136/fn.72.1.F34 Oriot, 1992, CSF ascorbic acid and lactate levels after neonatal asphyxia: preliminary results, Acta Paediatr, 81, 845, 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1992.tb12117.x Blennow, 1995, Early [F-18]FDG positron emission tomography in infants with hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy shows hypermetabolism during the postasphyctic period, Acta Paediatr, 84, 1289, 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1995.tb13551.x Gluckman, 1992, Is the cure worse than the disease? Caveats in the move from the laboratory to clinic, Dev Med Child Neurol, 34, 1015, 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1992.tb11408.x