Pharmaceuticals in the Environment
Tóm tắt
Pharmaceuticals are chemicals that are used because of their biological activity. They are often excreted unchanged and can reach the environment. Throughout developed countries, the pharmaceutical concentrations in the aquatic environment are in the same range (μg L−1 and below); however, it is not clear whether this holds for less-developed countries too. The health risks of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) remain poorly understood. Although there are no known short-term effects on humans, long-term effects cannot be ruled out until there is more research. The significance of metabolites and transformation products resulting from the parent APIs is not yet known. Awareness of the presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment, coupled with some evidence of effects, suggests that precautionary management action to reduce the release of pharmaceuticals to the environment should be considered. As for effluent treatment, no technology works well for all compounds. Advanced effluent treatment is not sustainable because of energy consumption, efficiency, and efficacy. Therefore, its appropriateness must be assessed on a case-by-case basis. Increased handling and use measures at the source and better biodegradable pharmaceuticals are necessary in the long run for the new paradigm called “sustainable pharmacy.”
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Fatta-Kassinos D, 2009, Xenobiotics in the Urban Water Cycle: Mass Flows, Environmental Processes, Mitigation and Treatment Strategies, 16
Kümmerer K, 2010, Treatise on Water Science
Williams R, 2005, Science for Assessing the Impacts of Human Pharmaceuticals on Aquatic Ecosystems
Ternes TA, 2006, Human Pharmaceuticals, Hormones and Fragrances. The Challenge of Micro-Pollutants in Urban Water Management
13. Cunningham V. 2008. Special characteristics of pharmaceuticals related to environmental fate. See Ref. 7, pp. 23–34
14. Straub JO. 2010. Protein and peptide therapeuticals: an example of ‘benign by nature’ active pharmaceutical ingredients. See Ref. 118, pp. 127–33
Kümmerer K, 2003, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol., 9, 1203
Längin A, 2008, Clean, 36, 349
32. Thomas KV, Langford KH. 2010. Point sources of human pharmaceuticals into the aquatic environment. See Ref. 118, pp. 211–23
52. Nequille A, Bugnon O. 2008. Pharmaceuticals and environment: role of community pharmacies. See Ref. 7, pp. 467–74
53. Vollmer G. 2010. Disposal of pharmaceutical waste in households—a European survey. See Ref. 118, pp. 165–78
57. Kallenborn R, Fick R, Lindberg R, Moe M, Nielsen KM, et al. 2008. Pharmaceutical residues in northern European environments: consequences and perspectives. See Ref. 7, pp. 61–74
Zuccato E, 2005, Environ. Health, 5, 4
Kümmerer K, 2008, Studie im Auftrag des Umweltbundesamtes Freiburg
Strässle R, 2007, Umw. Perspekt.—Das Fachmag. für Erfolgreiches Umweltmanag., 4, 34
Metzger S, 2005, GWF Wasser Abwasser, 9, 638
113. Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt. 2005. Arzneistoffe in der Umwelt. http://www.lfu.bayern.de/lfu/umweltberat/data/chem/stoff/arznei_2005.pdf
114. Heinzmann B, Schwarz RJ, Pineau C. 2006. Getrennte Erfassung von jodorganischen Röntgenkontrastmitteln in Berliner Krankenhäusern und deren Transformation. Presented at Getrennte Erfass. von jodorganischen Röntgenkontrastmitteln in Berliner Krankenh. und deren Transform., Worksh., Berlin
116. Wennmalm A, Gunnarson B. 2010. Experiences with the Swedish environmental classification scheme. See Ref. 118, pp. 243–49
120. EU Parliam./EU Comm. 2002. Decision No. 1600/2002/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 July 2002 laying down the Sixth Community Environment Action Programme. 10.9.2002. Off. J. Eur. Communities L242/1–15, 2002. 24.http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2002:242:0001:0015:EN:PDF