Perceptions and attitudes of Qatar University students regarding the utility of arabic and english in communication and education in Qatar
Tóm tắt
This study investigates the linguistic attitudes and perceptions of Qatar University students regarding the utility and vitality of the two languages that define the education and communication scenes in Qatar, namely, Arabic and English. It also reports on the predictors of these attitudes in terms of demographic traits. 861 students completed a questionnaire that was divided into: Media Language Preference (MLP); Value and Symbolism of Arabic (VSA); Arabic in Education and Society (AES); Medium of Instruction (MOI); Impact of Al-Jazeera Network (IJN); English in Scientific and Professional Communication (ESPC); Qatari Cultural Identity (QCI); Arabic Books (AB); English in Society and Work (ESW); Language in Workplace (LIW); Arabic in Employment (AE); Status of Arabic (SA); and Manifestations of Sociocultural Identity (MSI). Results showed that Arabic got higher ratings for MLP, VSA, AES, MOI, QCI, and MSI, while English was perceived as more useful than Arabic in ESPC. Correlational analysis showed that Gender had significant correlations with MLP, MOI, ESPC, and MSI, while Nationality, Specialization, and Number of spoken languages had correlations with MLP and MOI.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Ababneh, L. (2016). Comparative Arabic and English literacy: A study of female university students’ practices in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 5(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.1p.1
Abdel-Jawad, H. R., & Abu Radwan, A. S. (2011). The status of English in institutions of higher education in Oman: Sultan Qaboos University as a model. In A. Al-Issa & L. S. Dahan (Eds.), Global English and Arabic: Issues of language, culture, and identity (pp. 123–152). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/view/9783035301205/9783035301205.00007.xml
Ager, D. E. (1996). “Francophonie” in the 1990’s: Problems and opportunities. Multilingual Matters.
Airey, J., & Linder, C. (2008). Bilingual scientific literacy? The use of English in Swedish university science courses. Nordic Journal of English Studies, 7(3), 145.
Al Zumor, A. Q. (2019). Challenges of using EMI in teaching and learning of university scientific disciplines: Student voice. International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies, 5, 1–17.
Al-Bakri, S. (2013). Problematizing English Medium Instruction in Oman. International Journal of Bilingual & Multilingual Teachers of English. https://doi.org/10.12785/IJBMTE/010203
Al-Dabbagh, A. (2005). Globalism and the universal language. English Today, 21(2), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266078405002026
Al-Issa, A. (2017). English as a medium of instruction and the endangerment of Arabic literacy: The case of the United Arab Emirates. Arab World English Journal, 8, 3–17.
Al-Jarf, R. (2004). College students’ attitudes towards using English and Arabic as a medium of instruction at the university level. Diwan Al-Arab: Manbar Horr li Thakafa Waladab. http://www.diwanalarab.com/spip.php?article748
Al-Mahrooqi, R., & Denman, C. (Eds.). (2015). Issues in English education in the Arab world (Unabridged). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Al-Mashikhi, E., Al-Mahrooqi, R., & Denman, C. J. (2014). Investigating college of science student attitudes towards using English as a medium of instruction. 99–113.
Al-Obaidli, K. M. (2009). Women ESL teachers’ perceptions about their roles and professional development needs in Qatar’s education for a new era [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Birmingham.
Al-Qurashi, K. (1982). The feasibility of the Arabic language as a medium of instruction in sciences [Unpublished PhD dissertation]. University of Indiana.
Babault, S., & Caitucoli, C. (1997). Linguistic policy and education in francophone countries. In R. Wodak & D. Corson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education: Language policy and political issues in education (pp. 159–167). Springer.
Badry, F. (2011). Appropriating English: Language in identity construction in the United Arab Emirates. In A. Al-Issa & L. S. Dahan (Eds.), Global English and Arabic: Issues of language, culture, and identity (pp. 81–122). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/view/9783035301205/9783035301205.00008.xml
Badry, F., & Willoughby, J. (2015). Arabic in higher education: Questions of national identity and pragmatism. In F. Badry & J. Willoughby (Eds.), Higher education revolutions in the Gulf: Globalization and institutional viability. Routledge.
Bakir, M. (2010). Notes on the verbal system of Gulf Pidgin Arabic. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages, 25, 201–228. https://doi.org/10.1075/jpcl.25.2.01bak
Bani-Khaled, T. (2014). The role of English as perceived by students of applied English at the university of Jordan. European Scientific Journal, 10(5), 400–420.
Barnawi, O. Z. (2018). Neoliberalism and English language education policies in the Arabian Gulf. Routledge.
Belhiah, H., & Abdelatif, A. (2016). English as a medium of instruction in Moroccan higher education. Arab World English Journal, 7, 227–238. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2895569
Belhiah, H., & Elhami, M. (2015). English as a medium of instruction in the Gulf: When students and teachers speak. Language Policy, 14(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-014-9336-9
Benson, C. (2008). Summary overview: Mother tongue-based education in multi-lingual contexts. In C. Haddad (Ed.), Improving the quality of mother tongue-based literacy and learning: Case studies from Asia, Africa and South America (pp. 1–11). UNESCO.
Bolton, K., & Kuteeva, M. (2012). English as an academic language at a Swedish university: Parallel language use and the ‘threat’ of English. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 33(5), 429–447. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2012.670241
Bouhmama, D., & Bouhmama, S. (2015). Attitudes of Kuwait University students towards Modern Standard Arabic (MSA). College Student Journal, 49(3), 466–472.
Bourdieu, P. (1999). Language and symbolic power. Harvard University Press.
Bourhis, R., Giles, H., & Rosenthal, D. (1981). Notes on the construction of a ‘Subjective Vitality Questionnaire’ for ethnolinguistic groups. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2, 145–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.1981.9994047
Brewer, D. J., Augustine, C. H., Zellman, G. L., Ryan, G., Goldman, C. A., Stasz, C., & Constant, L. (2007). Education for a new era: Design and implementation of K-12 education reform in Qatar. RAND RAND-Qatar Policy Institute.
Brock-Utne, B. (2001). The growth of English for academic communication in the Nordic countries. International Review of Education, 47(3), 221–233. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017941523866
Brown, I., & Sachdev, I. (2009). Bilingual behaviour, attitudes, identity and vitality: Some data from Japanese speakers in London, UK. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 30(4), 327–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434630902780715
Bukve, T. (2018). Students’ perspectives on English medium instruction: A survey-based study at a Norwegian university. NJES Nordic Journal of English Studies, 17, 215–242.
Calvet, L. J. (1987). La guerre des langues et les politiques linguistiques. Payot.
Charise, A. (2007). More English, Less Islam. http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~cpercy/courses/eng6365-charise.htm.
Christ, H. (1997). Language attitudes and educational policy. In R. Wodak & D. Corson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education: Language policy and political issues in education (pp. 1–11). Springer.
Crisfield, E. (2019, February 5). Use of L1 in EMI: Understanding why and moving to how. Oxford University Press. https://oupeltglobalblog.com/2019/02/05/use-of-l1-in-emi-understanding-why-and-moving-to-how/.
Cummins, J. (2009). Transformative multiliteracies pedagogy: School-based strategies for closing the achievement gap. Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners, 11, 38–56.
da Silva, M. (2005). Constructing the teaching process from inside out: How pre-service teachers make sense of their perceptions of the teaching of the four skills. TESL-EJ, 9(2). http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1065833&site=ehost-live&scope=site&authtype=sso&custid=s3704754
Dafouz, E., & Smit, U. (2016). Towards a dynamic conceptual framework for English-medium education in multilingual university settings. Journal of Applied Linguistics, 37(3), 397–415. https://doi.org/10.1093/APPLIN/AMU034
Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction—A growing global phenomenon. British Council.
Despagne, C. (2010). The difficulties of learning English: Perceptions and attitudes in Mexico. Comparative and International Education, 39(2), 55–74. https://doi.org/10.5206/cie-eci.v39i2.9154
Dewaele, J. M., & Pena Diaz, C. (2018). Sources of variation in Galician multilinguals’ attitudes towards Galician, Spanish English and French. Revista Nebrija De Lingüística Aplicada a La Enseñanza De Lenguas, 12, 34–58.
Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J. M. (Eds.). (2012). English-medium instruction at universities: Global challenges. Multilingual Matters.
Drennan, L., & Rohde, F. H. (2002). Determinants of performance in advanced undergraduate management accounting: An empirical investigation. Accounting & Finance. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-629X.00065
Earls, C. W. (2014). Striking the balance: The role of English and German in a multilingual English-medium degree programme in German higher education. Current Issues in Language Planning, 15(2), 153–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2013.842457
Edwards, J. (1982). Language attitudes and their implications among English speakers. In E. B. Ryan & H. Giles (Eds.), Attitudes towards language variation: Social and applied contexts (pp. 20–33). E Arnold.
Ehala, M. (2010). Refining the notion of ethnolinguistic vitality. International Journal of Multilingualism, 7(4), 363–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790711003637094
Ejieh, M. (2004). Attitudes of student teachers towards teaching in mother tongue in Nigerian primary schools: Implications for planning. Language Culture and Curriculum - LANG CULT CURRIC, 17, 73–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908310408666683
El Massah, S. S., & Fadly, D. (2017). Predictors of academic performance for finance students: Women at higher education in the UAE. International Journal of Educational Management, 31(7), 854–864. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-12-2015-0171
Ellili-Cherif, M., & Alkhateeb, H. (2015). College students’ attitude toward the medium of instruction: Arabic versus English dilemma. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 3(3), 207–213.
Ellili-Cherif, M., & Romanowski, M. H. (2013). Education for a new era: Stakeholders’ perception of Qatari education reform. International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership. https://doi.org/10.22230/ijepl.2013v8n6a438
Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse (1st ed.). Bloomsbury Academic.
Fassi-Fehri, A. (2013). Language policy in Arab countries: Searching for a natural, just, democratic, beneficial environment [in Arabic]. Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Jadid al-Muttahida.
Ferguson, C. A. (1959). Diglossia. WORD. https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702
Findlow, S. (2006). Higher education and linguistic dualism in the Arab Gulf. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 27(1), 19–36.
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. E Arnold.
Garrett, P., Coupland, N., & Williams, A. (2003). Investigating language attitudes: Social meanings of dialect, ethnicity and performance (1st ed.). University of Wales Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qhc23.
Giles, H., Bourhis, R. Y., & Taylor, D. M. (1977). Towards a theory of language in ethnic group relations. In H. Giles (Ed.), Language, ethnicity and intergroup relations (pp. 307–348). Academic Press.
Griggs, R. A. (2014). Topical coverage in introductory textbooks from the 1980s through the 2000s. Teaching of Psychology, 41(1), 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628313514171
Guttenplan, D. D. (2012, June 11). Battling to preserve Arabic from English’s onslaught. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/middleeast/11iht-educlede11.html
Haberland, H. (2005). Domains and domain loss. The consequences of mobility: Linguistic and sociocultural contact zones. Institut for Sprog og Kultur.
Haeri, N. (2003). Sacred language, ordinary people: Dilemmas of culture and politics in Egypt. Springer.
Haidar, S., & Fang, F. (2019). English language in education and globalization: A comparative analysis of the role of English in Pakistan and China. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 39(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2019.1569892
Harb, N., & El-Shaarawi, A. (2007). Factors affecting students’ performance. Journal of Business Education, 82(5), 282–290.
Hopkyns, S. (2016). Emirati cultural identity in the age of “Englishization”: Voices from an Abu Dhabi University. In L. Buckingham (Ed.), Language, identity and education on the Arabian Peninsula: Bilingual policies in a multilingual context (pp. 87–115). Multilingual Matters.
Hultgren, A. K., Gregersen, F., & Thogersen, J. (2014). English in nordic universities: Ideologies and practices. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Jaworski, A., & Coupland, N. (2006). The discourse reader (2nd edn). Routledge.
Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: England.
Jensen, C., & Thogersen, J. (2011). Danish university lecturers’ attitudes towards English as the medium of instruction. Iberica, 22, 13–33.
Karmani, S. (2005a). English, “terror”, and Islam. Applied Linguistics, 26(2), 262–267.
Karmani, S. (2005b). Petro-Linguistics: The emerging nexus between oil, English, and Islam. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 4(2), 87–102.
Kennetz, K., & Carroll, K. S. (2018). Language threat in the United Arab Emirates? Unpacking domains of language use. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2018(254), 165–184. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-2018-0038
Kirkpatrick, A. (2012). English as an international language in Asia: Implications for language education. In A. Kirkpatrick & R. Sussex (Eds.), English as an international language in Asia: Implications for language education (pp. 29–44). Springer.
Kirkpatrick, A., & Sussex, R. (Eds.). (2012). English as an international language in Asia: Implications for language education. Springer.
Kirkpatrick, R. (Ed.). (2017). English language education policy in the Middle East and North Africa. Springer.
Knagg, J. (2013). EMI within a global context – Towards a British Council perspective. The Role of English in Higher Education: Issues, Policy, and Practice, 15.
Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and culture (1st ed.). Oxford University Press.
Kuteeva, M. (2014). The parallel language use of Swedish and English: The question of ‘nativeness’ in university policies and practices. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 35(4), 332–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2013.874432
Labov, W. (2001). Principles of linguistic change, Volume 2: Social factors. Wiley-Blackwell. https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Principles+of+Linguistic+Change%2C+Volume+2%3A+Social+Factors+-p-9780631179153
Lara Herrera, R. (2015). Mexican secondary school students’ perception of learning the history of Mexico in English. PROFILE Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 17(1), 105–120.
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. Longman. https://www.academia.edu/35697662/Diane_Larsen_Freeman_Michael_H_Long_An_introduction_to_second_language_acquisition_research_Longman_1991_
Lindsey, U. (2012, February 7). Debate arises at Qatar U. over decision to teach mainly in Arabic. The Chronicles of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/article/debate-arises-at-qatar-u-over-decision-to-teach-mainly-in-arabic/
Macaro, E. (2015). English Medium Instruction: Time to start asking some difficult questions. Undefined. /paper/English-Medium-Instruction%3A-Time-to-start-asking-Macaro/c2d2c2fe55e82545481a7ac123a0634e0b3ccc7a
Macaro, E., & Akincioglu, M. (2018). Turkish university students’ perceptions about English Medium Instruction: Exploring year group, gender and university type as variables. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 39(3), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2017.1367398
MacLeod, P., & Abou-El-Kheir, A. (2017). Qatar’s English education policy in K-12 and higher education: Rapid development, radical reform and transition to a new way forward. In R. Kirkpatrick (Ed.), English language education policy in the Middle East and North Africa. Springer.
Mahn, H., & John-Steiner, V. (2012). Vygotsky and sociocultural approaches to teaching and learning. American Cancer Society. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118133880.hop207006
Malallah, S. (2000). English in an Arabic environment: Current attitudes to English among Kuwait university students. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 3(1), 19–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050008667698
Marginson, S., & Rhoades, G. (2002). Beyond national states, markets, and systems of higher education: A glonacal agency heuristic. Higher Education, 43(3), 281–309. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014699605875
Martin, I. P. (Ed.). (2018). Reconceptualizing English education in a multilingual society: English in the Philippines. Springer.
May, S. (2005). Language rights: Moving the debate forward. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 9(3), 319–347. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-6441.2005.00295.x
Muhlhausler, P. (1996). Linguistic ecology: Language change and linguistic imperialism in the Pacific region. Routledge.
Mustafawi, E., & Shaaban, K. (2019). Language policies in education in Qatar between 2003 and 2012: From local to global then back to local. Language Policy, 18(2), 209–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-018-9483-5
O’Neill, G. (2014). “Just a natural move towards English”: Gulf youth attitudes towards Arabic and English literacy. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Gulf Perspectives, 11. https://doi.org/10.18538/lthe.v11.n1.160
Paschyn, C. M. (2013, October 25). Zig-Zagging education policies leave Qatari students behind. Al-Fanar Media. https://www.al-fanarmedia.org/2013/10/zig-zagging-education-policies-leave-qatari-students-behind/
Peiperl, M. A., & Trevelyan, R. (1997). Predictors of performance at business school and beyond: Demographic factors and the contrast between individual and group outcomes. Journal of Management Development, 16(5), 354–367. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621719710174534
Pennycook, A. (2010). Language as a local practice (1st edition). Routledge.
Pessoa, S., & Rajakumar, M. (2011). The impact of English-medium higher education: The case of Qatar. In A. Al-Issa & L. S. Dahan (Eds.), Global English and Arabic: Issues of language, culture, and identity (pp. 153–178). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/view/9783035301205/9783035301205.00008.xml
Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism (1st edn). Oxford University Press.
Phillipson, R. (2014). English, the lingua nullius of global hegemony. The politics of multilingualism: Linguistic governance, globalization and Europeanisation conference, Université de Genève.
Phillipson, R. (2015). English as a threat or opportunity in European higher education. In S. Dimova, A. K. Hultgren, & C. Jensen (Eds.), English-medium instruction in European higher education (Vols. 3, English in Europe, pp. 19–42). De Gruyter Mouton. https://research.cbs.dk/en/publications/english-as-a-threat-or-opportunity-in-european-higher-education
Piller, I. (2010, December 5). Happy birthday, UAE! Language on the Move. https://www.languageonthemove.com/happy.birthday-uae/
Planning and Statistics Authority. (2019). https://www.psa.gov.qa/en/Pages/default.aspx
Robertson R (2018) Glocalization. In International Encyclopedia of Anthropology (pp. 1–8). American Cancer Society. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118924396.wbiea2275
Romaine, S. (1995). Bilingualism (2nd ed.). Wiley.
Romanowski, M. H., Ellili-Cherif, M., Al Ammari, B., & Al Attiya, A. (2013). Qatar’s educational reform: The experiences and perceptions of principals, teachers and parents. International Journal of Education, 5(3), 119–146. https://doi.org/10.5296/ije.v5i3.3995
Ronesi, L. (2011). Who am I as an Arab English? In A. Al-Issa & L. S. Dahan (Eds.), Global English and Arabic: Issues of language, culture, and identity (pp. 49–80). Peter Lang. https://www.peterlang.com/view/9783035301205/9783035301205.00008.xml
Ryan, E. B., & Giles, H. (1982). Attitudes towards language variation: Social and applied contexts (pp. 20–33). E Arnold.
Saarinen, T., & Taalas, P. (2017). Nordic language policies for higher education and their multi-layered motivations. Higher Education: The International Journal of Higher Education Research, 73(4), 597–612.
Saarinen, T., & Ursin, J. (2012). Dominant and emerging approaches in the study of higher education policy change. Studies in Higher Education, 37, 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2010.538472
Saville-Troike, M. (2002). The ethnography of communication: An introduction (3rd ed.). Blackwell.
Sert, N. (2008). The language of instruction dilemma in the Turkish context. System, 36(2), 156–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2007.11.006
SESRI. (2018). National Identity Survey | Qatar University. http://www.qu.edu.qa/research/sesri/data-center/National-Identity-Survey
Shaaban, K., & Ghaith, G. (1999). Lebanon’s language in education policies: From bilingualism to trilingualism. Language Problems & Language Planning, 23, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1075/lplp.23.1.01leb
Shaaban, K., & Ghaith, G. (2002). University students’ perceptions of the ethnolinguistic vitality of Arabic, French and English in Lebanon. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 6(4), 557–574. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9481.00201
Shaaban, K., & Ghaith, G. (2003). Effect of religion, first foreign language, and gender on the perception of the utility of language. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 2(1), 53–77. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327701JLIE0201_3
Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & Toukomaa, P. (1976). Teaching migrant children’s mother tongue and learning the language of the host country in the context of the socio-cultural situation of the migrant family. University of Tampere.
Solloway, A. (2017). English in the United Arab Emirates: Innocuous lingua franca or insidious cultural Trojan horse? In L. Buckingham (Ed.), Language, identity and education on the Arabian Peninsula: Bilingual policies in a multilingual context (pp. 176–196). Multilingual Matters.
Solloway, A. (2018). “Make them take an ‘IELTS test’ in Arabic”! Resentment of and resistance towards English and English-medium instruction in the UAE. Arab World English Journal, 9, 458–478.
Suleiman, Y. (2013). Arabic in the fray: Language ideology and cultural politics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Taguchi, N., & Ishihara, N. (2018). The pragmatics of English as a lingua franca: Research and pedagogy in the era of globalization. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 38, 80–101. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190518000028
Takahashi, C. (2019). Developing the ideal multilingual self in the era of global English: A case in the Japanese context. The Language Learning Journal. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2019.1606272
Tamtam, A., Gallagher, F., Naher, S., & Olabi, A. (2013). The impact of language of instruction on quality of science and engineering education in Libya: Qualitative study of faculty members. European Scientific Journal (ESJ), 9(31), 19–36.
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2012). Dual language education for a transformed world. Fuente Press.
Thomason, S. G. (2001). Language contact. Edinburgh University Press.
Tilmatine, M. (2015). Arabization and linguistic domination: Berber and Arabic in the North of Africa. In Language empires in comparative perspective (pp. 1–16). De Gruyter. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02182976
Tollefson, J. W. (2008). Critical theory in language policy. In T. Ricento (Ed.), An Introduction to language policy: Theory and method. Wiley-Blackwell.
Troudi, S., & Jendli, A. (2011). Emirati students’ experiences of English as a medium of instruction. Peter Lang Publishers. https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/handle/10871/25041
Vaish, V. (2007). Globalisation of language and culture in Singapore. International Journal of Multilingualism, 4(3), 217–233.
Wiesing, L. (2016). The philosophy of perception: Phenomenology and image theory (NA Roth Trans). Bloomsbury Academic.
Wilkinson, R. (2012). English-medium instruction at a Dutch university: Challenges and pitfalls. In A. Doiz, D. Lasagabaster, & J. M. Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction at universities: Global challenges (pp. 3–24). Multilingual Matters.
Williams, D. G. (2015). A systematic review of English Medium Instruction (EMI) and implications for the South Korean higher education context. ELT World Online.
Wodak, R., & Meyer, M. (Eds.). (2002). Methods of critical discourse analysis (1st ed.). Sage.