Pediatric Sleep Pharmacology: A Primer

Seminars in Pediatric Neurology - Tập 22 - Trang 135-147 - 2015
Matthew M. Troester1,2,3, Rafael Pelayo4
1Department of Neurology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ
2Department of Pediatrics, Creighton University College of Medicine, Omaha, NE
3Comprehensive Sleep Medicine Program, Phoenix Childrenʼs Hospital, Phoenix, AZ
4Stanford Sleep Disorders Clinic, Stanford University School of Medicine, Redwood City, CA

Tài liệu tham khảo

Owens, 2005, Use of the “BEARS” sleep screening tool in a pediatric residentsʼ continuity clinic: A pilot study, Sleep Med, 6, 63, 10.1016/j.sleep.2004.07.015 Byars, 2012, Prevalence, patterns, and persistence of sleep problems in the first 3 years of life, Pediatrics, 129, e276, 10.1542/peds.2011-0372 Bonuck, 2012, Sleep-disordered breathing in a population-based cohort: Behavioral outcomes at 4 and 7 years, Pediatrics, 129, 1, 10.1542/peds.2011-1402 Beebe, 2012, Persistent snoring in preschool children: Predictors and behavioral and developmental correlates, Pediatrics, 130, 382, 10.1542/peds.2012-0045 Hudgel, 1998, Pharmacologic treatment of sleep disordered breathing, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 158, 691, 10.1164/ajrccm.158.3.9802019 Guilleminault, 1976, Sleep apnea in eight children, Pediatrics, 58, 23, 10.1542/peds.58.1.23 Marcus, 1995, Use of nasal continuous positive airway pressure as treatment of childhood obstructive sleep apnea, J Pediatr, 127, 88, 10.1016/S0022-3476(95)70262-8 Marcus, 2013, A randomized trial of adenotonsillectomy for childhood sleep apnea, N Engl J Med, 368, 2366, 10.1056/NEJMoa1215881 Villa, 2011, Efficacy of rapid maxillary expansion in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: 36 Months of follow up, Sleep Breath, 15, 179, 10.1007/s11325-011-0505-1 Pirelli, 2004, Rapid maxillary expansion in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, Sleep, 27, 761, 10.1093/sleep/27.4.761 Brouillette, 2001, Efficacy of fluticasone nasal spray for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea, J Pediatr, 138, 838, 10.1067/mpd.2001.114474 Kheirandish-Gozal, 2008, Intranasal budesonide treatment for children with mild obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, Pediatrics, 122, e149, 10.1542/peds.2007-3398 Marcus, 2001, Nasal steroids as a treatment for obstructive sleep apnea: Donʼt throw away the scalpel yet, J Pediatr, 138, 795, 10.1067/mpd.2001.116063 Goldbart, 2005, Leukotriene modifier therapy for mild sleep-disordered breathing in children, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 172, 364, 10.1164/rccm.200408-1064OC Goldbart, 2012, Montelukast for children with obstructive sleep apnea: A double blind, placebo-controlled study, Pediatrics, 130, 1, 10.1542/peds.2012-0310 Wallerstedt, 2009, Montelukast and psychiatric disorders in children, Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf, 18, 858, 10.1002/pds.1794 Philip, 2009, Analysis of behavior-related adverse experiences in clinical trials of montelukast, J Allergy Clin Immunol, 124, 699, 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.08.011 Kheirandish, 2006, Intranasal steroids and oral leukotriene modifier therapy in residual sleep-disordered breathing after tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy in children, Pediatrics, 117, e61, 10.1542/peds.2005-0795 American Academy of Sleep Medicine, 2014 Walters, 2013, Restless legs syndrome (Willis-Ekbom disease) and growing pains: Are they the same thing? A side-by-side comparison of the diagnostic criteria for both and recommendations for future research, Sleep Med, 14, 1247, 10.1016/j.sleep.2013.07.013 Pinchietti, 2013, Pediatric restless legs syndrome diagnostic criteria: An update by the International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group, Sleep Med, 14, 1253, 10.1016/j.sleep.2013.08.778 Picchietti, 2010, Advances in pediatric restless legs syndrome: Iron, genetics, diagnosis and treatment, Sleep Med, 11, 643, 10.1016/j.sleep.2009.11.014 Silber, 2013, Willis-Ekbom disease foundation revised consensus statement on the management of restless legs syndrome, Mayo Clin Proc, 88, 977, 10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.06.016 Garcia-Borreguero, 2011, Algorithms for the diagnosis and treatment of restless legs syndrome in primary care, BMC Neurol, 11, 28, 10.1186/1471-2377-11-28 Patrick, 2007, Restless legs syndrome: Pathophysiology and the role of iron and folate, Altern Med Rev, 12, 101 Dosman, 2012, Ironʼs role in paediatric restless legs syndrome—A review, Paediatr Child Health, 17, 193, 10.1093/pch/17.4.193 Aurora, 2012, The treatment of restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder in adults—An update for 2012: Practice parameters with an evidence-based systematic review and meta-analyses, Sleep, 35, 1039, 10.5665/sleep.1986 Walters, 2000, Dopaminergic therapy in children with restless legs/periodic limb movements in sleep and ADHD. Dopaminergic Therapy Study Group, Pediatr Neurol, 22, 182, 10.1016/S0887-8994(99)00152-6 Pelayo, 2012, Pediatric sleep pharmacology, Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am, 21, 861, 10.1016/j.chc.2012.08.001 Ferini-Strambi, 2014, Pharmacotherapy for restless legs syndrome, Expert Opin Pharmacother, 15, 127, 10.1517/14656566.2014.908850 Oertel, 2007, Efficacy of pramipexole in restless legs syndrome: A six-week, multicenter, randomized, double-blind study (effect-RLS study), Mov Disord, 22, 213, 10.1002/mds.21261 Allen, 2008, Clinical efficacy of ropinirole for restless legs syndrome is not affected by age at symptom onset, Sleep Med, 9, 899, 10.1016/j.sleep.2007.08.017 Quilici, 2008, Meta-analysis of the efficacy and tolerability of pramipexole versus ropinirole in the treatment of restless legs syndrome, Sleep Med, 9, 715, 10.1016/j.sleep.2007.11.020 Oertel, 2011, Long-term safety and efficacy of rotigotine transdermal patch for moderate-to-severe idiopathic restless legs syndrome: A 5-year open-label extension study, Lancet Neurol, 10, 710, 10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70127-2 Oertel, 2010, Rotigotine transdermal patch in moderate to severe idiopathic restless legs syndrome: A randomized, placebo-controlled polysomnographic study, Sleep Med, 11, 848, 10.1016/j.sleep.2010.02.014 Pelayo, 2008, Pediatric sleep pharmacology, Semin Pediatr Neurol, 15, 79, 10.1016/j.spen.2008.03.004 Garcia-Borreguero, 2002, Treatment of restless legs syndrome with gabapentin: A double-blind, cross-over study, Neurology, 59, 1573, 10.1212/WNL.59.10.1573 Garcia-Borreguero, 2010, Treatment of restless legs syndrome with pregabalin: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study, Neurology, 74, 1897, 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181e1ce73 Allen, 2010, A randomized, double-blind, 6-week, dose-ranging study of pregabalin in patients with restless legs syndrome, Sleep Med, 11, 512, 10.1016/j.sleep.2010.03.003 Saletu, 2010, Comparative placebo-controlled polysomnographic and psychometric studies on the acute effects of gabapentin versus ropinirole in restless legs syndrome, J Neural Transm, 117, 463, 10.1007/s00702-009-0361-3 Allen, 2014, Comparison of pregabalin with pramipexole for restless legs syndrome, N Engl J Med, 370, 621, 10.1056/NEJMoa1303646 Lal, 2012, A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-response study to assess the pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety of gabapentin enacarbil in subjects with restless legs syndrome, Clin Neuropharmacol, 35, 165, 10.1097/WNF.0b013e318259eac8 Mills, 2012, Retention rate of gabapentin in children with intractable epilepsies at 1 year, Seizure, 21, 28, 10.1016/j.seizure.2011.08.013 Haig, 2001, Single-dose gabapentin pharmacokinetics and safety in healthy infants and children, J Clin Pharmacol, 41, 507, 10.1177/00912700122010384 Mann, 2014, Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of pregabalin in children with refractory partial seizures: A phase 1, randomized controlled study, Epilepsia, 55, 1934, 10.1111/epi.12830 Frank, 1997, The use of scheduled awakenings to eliminate childhood sleepwalking, J Pediatr Psychol, 22, 345, 10.1093/jpepsy/22.3.345 Cooper, 1987, Treatment of coexistent night-terrors and somnambulism in adults with imipramine and diazepam, J Clin Psychiatry, 48, 209 Balon, 1994, Sleep terror disorder and insomnia treated with trazodone: A case report, Ann Clin Psychiatry, 6, 161, 10.3109/10401239409148998 Schenck, 1996, Long-term, nightly benzodiazepine treatment of injurious parasomnias and other disorders of disrupted nocturnal sleep in 170 adults, Am J Med, 100, 333, 10.1016/S0002-9343(97)89493-4 Guilleminault, 2005, Adult chronic sleepwalking and its treatment based on polysomnography, Brain, 128, 1062, 10.1093/brain/awh481 Derry, 2009, Nrem arousal parasomnias and their distinction from nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy: A video EEG analysis, Sleep, 32, 1637, 10.1093/sleep/32.12.1637 Guilleminault, 1998, Narcolepsy in prepubertal children, Ann Neurol, 43, 135, 10.1002/ana.410430125 Ahmed, 2014, Narcolepsy, 2009 A(H1N1) pandemic influenza, and pandemic influenza vaccinations: What is known and unknown about the neurological disorder, the role for autoimmunity, and vaccine adjuvants, J Autoimmun, 50, 1, 10.1016/j.jaut.2014.01.033 Littner, 2001, Practice parameters for the treatment of narcolepsy: An update for 2000, Sleep, 24, 451 http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/06/briefing/2006-4210b_17_01_CV%20labeling%20list.pdf. Morgenthaler, 2007, Practice parameters for the treatment of narcolepsy and other hypersomnias of central origin, Sleep, 30, 1705, 10.1093/sleep/30.12.1705 Broughton, 1997, Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial of modafinil in the treatment of excessive daytime sleepiness in narcolepsy, Neurology, 49, 444, 10.1212/WNL.49.2.444 Schwartz, 2005, Dose effects of modafinil in sustaining wakefulness in narcolepsy patients with residual evening sleepiness, J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 17, 405, 10.1176/jnp.17.3.405 Philip, 2014, Modafinil improves real driving performance in patients with hypersomnia: A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover clinical trial, Sleep, 37, 483, 10.5665/sleep.3480 Ivanenko, 2003, Modafinil in the treatment of excessive daytime sleepiness in children, Sleep Med, 4, 579, 10.1016/S1389-9457(03)00162-X Yeh, 2010, Efficacy of modafinil in 10 Taiwanese patients with narcolepsy: Findings using the multiple sleep latency test and Epworth Sleepiness Scale, Kaohsiung J Med Sci, 26, 422, 10.1016/S1607-551X(10)70068-1 Weselake, 2014, Prader-Willi syndrome, excessive daytime sleepiness, and narcoleptic symptoms: A case report, J Med Case Rep, 8, 127, 10.1186/1752-1947-8-127 De Cock, 2011, Efficacy of modafinil on excessive daytime sleepiness in Prader-Willi syndrome, Am J Med Genet A, 155, 1552, 10.1002/ajmg.a.34047 Lecendreux, 2012, Clinical experience suggests that modafinil is an effective and safe treatment for paediatric narcolepsy, J Sleep Res, 21, 481, 10.1111/j.1365-2869.2011.00991.x Biederman, 2005, Efficacy and safety of modafinil film-coated tablets in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, flexible-dose study, Pediatrics, 116, e777, 10.1542/peds.2005-0617 Kahbazi, 2009, A randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled trial of modafinil in children and adolescents with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, Psychiatry Res, 168, 234, 10.1016/j.psychres.2008.06.024 Harsh, 2006, The efficacy and safety of armodafinil as treatment for adults with excessive sleepiness associated with narcolepsy, Curr Med Res Opin, 22, 761, 10.1185/030079906X100050 Schwartz, 2010, Tolerability and efficacy of armodafinil in naïve patients with excessive sleepiness associated with obstructive sleep apnea, shift work disorder, or narcolepsy: A 12-month, open-label, flexible-dose study with an extension period, J Clin Sleep Med, 6, 450, 10.5664/jcsm.27934 Black, 2010, The long-term tolerability and efficacy of armodafinil in patients with excessive sleepiness associated with treated obstructive sleep apnea, shift work disorder, or narcolepsy: An open-label extension study, J Clin Sleep Med, 6, 458, 10.5664/jcsm.27935 Rugino, 2007, A review of modafinil film-coated tablets for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents, Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat, 3, 293 Lammers, 1993, Gammahydroxybutyrate and narcolepsy: A double-blind placebo-controlled study, Sleep, 16, 216, 10.1093/sleep/16.3.216 US Xyrem Multicenter Study Group, 2004, Sodium oxybate demonstrates long-term efficacy for the treatment of cataplexy in patients with narcolepsy, Sleep Med, 5, 119, 10.1016/j.sleep.2003.11.002 Black, 2006, Sodium oxybate improves excessive daytime sleepiness in narcolepsy, Sleep, 29, 939, 10.1093/sleep/29.7.939 Huang, 2009, Narcolepsy: Action of two gamma-aminobutyric acid type B agonists, baclofen and sodium oxybate, Pediatr Neurol, 41, 9, 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2009.02.008 Mansukhani, 2012, Sodium oxybate in the treatment of childhood narcolepsy-cataplexy: A retrospective study, Sleep Med, 13, 606, 10.1016/j.sleep.2011.10.032 Lecendreux, 2012, Tolerance and efficacy of sodium oxybate in childhood narcolepsy with cataplexy: A retrospective study, Sleep, 35, 709, 10.5665/sleep.1836 Aran, 2010, Clinical and therapeutic aspects of childhood narcolepsy-cataplexy: A retrospective study of 51 children, Sleep, 33, 1457, 10.1093/sleep/33.11.1457 Scharf, 1998, Pharmacokinetics of gammahydroxybutyrate (GHB) in narcoleptic patients, Sleep, 21, 507, 10.1093/sleep/21.5.507 Vignatelli, 2008, Antidepressant drugs for narcolepsy, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, CD003724 Niederhofer, 2005, Atomoxetine also effective in patients suffering from narcolepsy?, Sleep, 28, 1189, 10.1093/sleep/28.9.1189 Billiard, 2008, Narcolepsy: Current treatment options and future approaches, Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat, 4, 557 Miyagawa, 2013, Effects of oral L-carnitine administration in narcolepsy patients: A randomized, double-blind, cross-over and placebo-controlled trial, PLoS One, 8, e53707, 10.1371/journal.pone.0053707 Dauvilliers, 2013, Pitolisant versus placebo or modafinil in patients with narcolepsy: A double-blind, randomised trial, Lancet Neurol, 12, 1068, 10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70225-4 Weinhold, 2014, The effect of intranasal orexin-A (hypocretin-1) on sleep, wakefulness and attention in narcolepsy with cataplexy, Behav Brain Res, 262, 8, 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.12.045 Quine, 2001, Sleep problems in primary school children: Comparison between mainstream and special school children, Child Care Health Dev, 27, 201, 10.1046/j.1365-2214.2001.00213.x Stores, 2001, Sleep-wake function in children with neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders, Semin Pediatr Neurol, 8, 188, 10.1053/spen.2001.29042 Sadeh, 2000, Sleep patterns and sleep disruptions in school-age children, Dev Psychol, 36, 291, 10.1037/0012-1649.36.3.291 Wiggs, 2001, Behavioural treatment for sleep problems in children with severe intellectual disabilities and daytime challenging behavior: Effect on mothers and fathers, Br J Health Psychol, 6, 257, 10.1348/135910701169197 Stojanovski, 2007, Trends in medication prescribing for pediatric sleep difficulties in US outpatient settings, Sleep, 30, 1013, 10.1093/sleep/30.8.1013 Owens, 2009, Pharmacologic treatment of pediatric insomnia, Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am, 18, 1001, 10.1016/j.chc.2009.04.009 Weiss, 2010, Pharmacotherapy in pediatric sleep disorders, Adolesc Med, 21, 508 Morgenthaler, 2006, Practice parameters for behavioral treatment of bedtime problems and night wakings in infants and young children, Sleep, 29, 1277 Owens, 2005, The use of pharmacotherapy in the treatment of pediatric insomnia in primary care: Rational approaches. A consensus meeting summary, J Clin Sleep Med, 1, 49, 10.5664/jcsm.26297 Grigg-Damberger, 2013, Treatment strategies for complex behavioral insomnia in children with neurodevelopmental disorders, Curr Opin Pulm Med, 19, 616, 10.1097/MCP.0b013e328365ab89 Owens, 2003, Medication use in the treatment of pediatric insomnia: Results of a survey of community-based pediatricians, Pediatrics, 111, e628, 10.1542/peds.111.5.e628 Meltzer, 2007, Use of sleep medications in hospitalized pediatric patients, Pediatrics, 119, 1047, 10.1542/peds.2006-2773 Schnoes, 2006, Pediatric prescribing practices for clonidine and other pharmacologic agents for children with sleep disturbance, Clin Pediatr (Phila), 45, 229, 10.1177/000992280604500304 Merenstein, 2006, The trial of infant response to diphenhydramine: The TIRED study—A randomized, controlled, patient-oriented trial, Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 160, 707, 10.1001/archpedi.160.7.707 Haydon, 2001, Are second-generation antihistamines appropriate for most children and adults?, Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg, 127, 1510, 10.1001/archotol.127.12.1510 Meltzer, 1991, Comparative safety of H1 antihistamines, Ann Allergy, 67, 625 Richardson, 2002, Tolerance to daytime sedative effects of H1 antihistamines, J Clin Psychopharmacol, 22, 511, 10.1097/00004714-200210000-00012 Gengo, 1989, The pharmacodynamics of diphenhydramineinduced drowsiness and changes in mental performance, Clin Pharmacol Ther, 45, 15, 10.1038/clpt.1989.3 Albert, 1975, Pharmacokinetics of diphenhydramine in man, J Pharmacokinet Biopharm, 3, 159, 10.1007/BF01067905 1996 Dinndorf, 1998, Risk of abuse of diphenhydramine in children and adolescents with chronic illnesses, J Pediatr, 133, 293, 10.1016/S0022-3476(98)70240-9 Nigro, 1975, Sleep: Notes on pediatric pharmacotherapy (in the light of current knowledge of its principal characteristics), Minerva Pediatr, 27, 1999 Baker, 2003, Fatal diphenhydramine intoxication in infants, J Forensic Sci, 48, 425, 10.1520/JFS2002121 Magera, 1981, Hydroxyzine intoxication in a 13-month-old child, Pediatrics, 67, 280, 10.1542/peds.67.2.280 Owens, 2010, Use of pharmacotherapy for insomnia in child psychiatry practice: A national survey, Sleep Med, 11, 692, 10.1016/j.sleep.2009.11.015 Alao, 2012, The use of clonidine in the treatment of nightmares among patients with co-morbid PTSD and traumatic brain injury, Int J Psychiatry Med, 44, 165, 10.2190/PM.44.2.g Ingrassia, 2005, The use of clonidine for severe and intractable sleep problems in children with neurodevelopmental disorders—A case series, Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 14, 34, 10.1007/s00787-005-0424-4 Prince, 1996, Clonidine for sleep disturbances associated with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic chart review of 62 cases, J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 35, 599, 10.1097/00004583-199605000-00014 Wilens, 1994, Clonidine for sleep disturbances associated with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 33, 424, 10.1097/00004583-199403000-00018 Miyazaki, 2004, Clonidine effects on all-night human sleep: Opposite action of low- and medium-dose clonidine on human NREM-REM sleep proportion, Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 58, 138, 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2003.01207.x Newcorn, 2013, Randomized, double-blind trial of guanfacine extended release in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Morning or evening administration, J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 52, 921, 10.1016/j.jaac.2013.06.006 Arnsten, 2007, alpha2-Adrenergic receptor agonists for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Emerging concepts from new data, J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 17, 393, 10.1089/cap.2006.0098 Rotiroti, 1982, Evidence that behavioural and electrocortical sleep induced by guanfacine is due to stimulation of alpha 2-adrenoceptors, J Psychiatr Res, 17, 231, 10.1016/0022-3956(82)90001-2 Szot, 2004, The anticonvulsant and proconvulsant effects of alpha2-adrenoreceptor agonists are mediated by distinct populations of alpha2A-adrenoreceptors, Neuroscience, 126, 795, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.04.030 Rugino, 2014, Effect on primary sleep disorders when children with ADHD are administered guanfacine extended release, J Atten Disord, 10.1177/1087054714554932 Ashton, 1994, Guidelines for the rational use of benzodiazepines. When and what to use, Drugs, 48, 25, 10.2165/00003495-199448010-00004 Gringras, 2008, When to use drugs to help sleep, Arch Dis Child, 93, 976, 10.1136/adc.2007.128728 Wills, 2002, Parasomnias: Epidemiology and management, CNS Drugs, 16, 803, 10.2165/00023210-200216120-00002 Möhler, 2002, A new benzodiazepine pharmacology, J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 300, 2, 10.1124/jpet.300.1.2 Roehrs, 2012, Twelve months of nightly zolpidem does not lead to rebound insomnia or withdrawal symptoms: A prospective placebo-controlled study, J Psychopharmacol, 26, 1088, 10.1177/0269881111424455 Poceta, 2011, Zolpidem ingestion, automatisms, and sleep driving: A clinical and legal case series, J Clin Sleep Med, 7, 632, 10.5664/jcsm.1468 Liskow, 2004, Zaleplon overdose associated with sleepwalking and complex behavior, J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 43, 927, 10.1097/01.chi.0000129219.66563.aa Sein Anand, 2007, Acute intoxication with zaleplon—A case report, Przegl Lek, 64, 310 Kurta, 1997, Zolpidem (Ambien): A pediatric case series, J Toxicol Clin Toxicol, 35, 453, 10.3109/15563659709001227 Thornton, 2013, Pediatric zolpidem ingestion demonstrating zero-order kinetics treated with flumazenil, Pediatr Emerg Care, 29, 1204, 10.1097/PEC.0b013e3182aa139c Greenblatt, 2013, Comparison of pharmacokinetic profiles of zolpidem buffered sublingual tablet and zolpidem oral immediate-release tablet: Results from a single-center, single-dose, randomized, open-label crossover study in healthy adults, Clin Ther, 35, 604, 10.1016/j.clinthera.2013.03.007 Greenblatt, 2014, Gender differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of zolpidem following sublingual administration, J Clin Pharmacol, 54, 282, 10.1002/jcph.220 Salva, 1995, Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of zolpidem. Therapeutic implications, Clin Pharmacokinet, 29, 142, 10.2165/00003088-199529030-00002 Blumer, 2008, Potential pharmacokinetic basis for zolpidem dosing in children with sleep difficulties, Clin Pharmacol Ther, 83, 551, 10.1038/sj.clpt.6100380 Blumer, 2009, Controlled clinical trial of zolpidem for the treatment of insomnia associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children 6 to 17 years of age, Pediatrics, 123, e770, 10.1542/peds.2008-2945 Sangal, 2014, Eszopiclone for insomnia associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Pediatrics, 134, e1095, 10.1542/peds.2013-4221 Le Bon, 2003, Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy of trazodone in alcohol post-withdrawal syndrome: Polysomnographic and clinical evaluations, J Clin Psychopharmacol, 23, 377, 10.1097/01.jcp.0000085411.08426.d3 van Bemmel, 1992, Effects of trazodone on EEG sleep and clinical state in major depression, Psychopharmacology, 107, 569, 10.1007/BF02245272 Wheatley, 1984, Trazodone: Alternative dose regimens and sleep, Pharmatherapeutica, 3, 607 Shamseddeen, 2012, Adjunctive sleep medications and depression outcome in the treatment of serotonin-selective reuptake inhibitor resistant depression in adolescents study, J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 22, 29, 10.1089/cap.2011.0027 Sheehan, 2009, The efficacy and tolerability of once-daily controlled-release trazodone for depressed mood, anxiety, insomnia, and suicidality in major depressive disorder, Psychopharmacol Bull, 42, 5 Holmberg, 1988, Sedative effects of maprotiline and amitriptyline, Acta Psychiatr Scand, 77, 584, 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1988.tb05171.x Mertz, 1998, Effect of amitriptyline on symptoms, sleep, and visceral perception in patients with functional dyspepsia, Am J Gastroenterol, 93, 160, 10.1111/j.1572-0241.1998.00160.x Ware, 1989, Effects on sleep: A double-blind study comparing trimipramine to imipramine in depressed insomniac patients, Sleep, 12, 537, 10.1093/sleep/12.6.537 Riemann, 2002, Trimipramine in primary insomnia: Results of a polysomnographic double-blind controlled study, Pharmacopsychiatry, 35, 165, 10.1055/s-2002-34119 Krystal, 2011, Efficacy and safety of doxepin 3 and 6 mg in a 35-day sleep laboratory trial in adults with chronic primary insomnia, Sleep, 34, 1433 Zell-Kanter, 2000, Doxepin toxicity in a child following topical administration, Ann Pharmacother, 34, 328, 10.1345/aph.19170 Armitage, 1997, A multicenter, double-blind comparison of the effects of nefazodone and fluoxetine on sleep architecture and quality of sleep in depressed outpatients, J Clin Psychopharmacol, 17, 161, 10.1097/00004714-199706000-00004 Wiegand, 2004, Nefazodone in primary insomnia: An open pilot study, Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 28, 1071, 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2004.05.042 Sørensen, 1985, A double-blind group comparative study using the new anti-depressant Org 3770, placebo and diazepam in patients with expected insomnia and anxiety before elective gynaecological surgery, Acta Psychiatr Scand, 71, 339, 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1985.tb02533.x Wang, 2014, Real-world open-label study to evaluate the effectiveness of mirtazapine on sleep quality in outpatients with major depressive disorder, Asia Pac Psychiatry, 6, 152, 10.1111/appy.12060 Posey, 2001, A naturalistic open-label study of mirtazapine in autistic and other pervasive developmental disorders, J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 11, 267, 10.1089/10445460152595586 Thompson Coon, 2014, Interventions to reduce inappropriate prescribing of antipsychotic medications in people with dementia resident in care homes: A systematic review, J Am Med Dir Assoc, 15, 706, 10.1016/j.jamda.2014.06.012 Sokolski, 2006, Quetiapine for insomnia associated with refractory depression exacerbated by phenelzine, Ann Pharmacother, 40, 567, 10.1345/aph.1G416 Juri, 2005, Quetiapine for insomnia in Parkinson disease: Results from an open-label trial, Clin Neuropharmacol, 28, 185, 10.1097/01.wnf.0000174932.82134.e2 Doan, 1998, Risperidone for insomnia in PDDs, Can J Psychiatry, 43, 1050 Tassniyom, 2010, Quetiapine for primary insomnia: A double blind, randomized controlled trial, J Med Assoc Thai, 93, 729 Trivedi, 2013, Evaluation of the effects of extended release quetiapine fumarate monotherapy on sleep disturbance in patients with major depressive disorder: A pooled analysis of four randomized acute studies, Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 16, 1733, 10.1017/S146114571300028X Golubchik, 2011, Low-dose quetiapine for adolescents with autistic spectrum disorder and aggressive behavior: Open-label trial, Clin Neuropharmacol, 34, 216, 10.1097/WNF.0b013e31823349ac McCord, 1917, Evidences associating pineal gland function with alterations in pigmentation, J Exp Zool, 23, 207, 10.1002/jez.1400230108 Lerner, 1958, Isolation of melatonin, the pineal gland factor that lightens melanocytes. J Am Chem Soc, 80, 2587 Lerner, 1960, Melatonin, Fed Proc, 19, 590 Lerner, 1978, Melatonin: Clinical pharmacology, J Neural Transm Suppl, 13, 339 Lynch, 1975, Daily rhythm in human urinary melatonin, Science, 187, 169, 10.1126/science.1167425 Wilson, 1978, 5-Methoxytryptophol in rat serum and pineal: Detection, quantitation, and evidence for daily rhythmicity, Life Sci, 23, 1019, 10.1016/0024-3205(78)90661-6 Wagner, 1998, Beyond benzodiazepines: Alternative pharmacologic agents for the treatment of insomnia, Ann Pharmacother, 32, 680, 10.1345/aph.17111 Touitou, 2001, Human aging and melatonin. Clinical relevance, Exp Gerontol, 36, 1083, 10.1016/S0531-5565(01)00120-6 Cortesi, 2012, Controlled-release melatonin, singly and combined with cognitive behavioural therapy, for persistent insomnia in children with autism spectrum disorders: A randomized placebo-controlled trial, J Sleep Res, 21, 700, 10.1111/j.1365-2869.2012.01021.x van Geijlswijk, 2010, Dose finding of melatonin for chronic idiopathic childhood sleep onset insomnia: An RCT, Psychopharmacology, 212, 379, 10.1007/s00213-010-1962-0 Zee, 2010, Shedding light on the effectiveness of melatonin for circadian rhythm sleep disorders, Sleep, 33, 1581, 10.1093/sleep/33.12.1581 Luboshitzky, 1995, Increased nocturnal melatonin secretion in male patients with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and delayed puberty, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 80, 2144 Sheldon, 1998, Pro-convulsant effects of oral melatonin in neurologically disabled children, Lancet, 351, 1254, 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)79321-1 Sutherland, 2003, Elevated serum melatonin is associated with the nocturnal worsening of asthma, J Allergy Clin Immunol, 112, 513, 10.1016/S0091-6749(03)01717-2 Hoebert, 2009, Long-term follow-up of melatonin treatment in children with ADHD and chronic sleep onset insomnia, J Pineal Res, 47, 1, 10.1111/j.1600-079X.2009.00681.x The Physicianʼs Desk Reference. 2015 [ebook] Miyamoto, 2013, Treatment with ramelteon for sleep disturbance in severely disabled children and young adults, No To Hattatsu, 45, 440 Kawabe K, Horiuchi F, Oka Y, et al: The melatonin receptor agonist ramelteon effectively treats insomnia and behavioral symptoms in autistic disorder. Case Rep Psychiatry [Epub 2014 May 14] Asano, 2014, Ramelteon monotherapy for insomnia and impulsive behavior in high-functioning autistic disorder, J Clin Psychopharmacol, 34, 402, 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000137 Stigler, 2006, Ramelteon for insomnia in two youths with autistic disorder, J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 16, 631, 10.1089/cap.2006.16.631 Rajaratnam, 2009, Melatonin agonist tasimelteon (VEC-162) for transient insomnia after sleep-time shift: Two randomised controlled multicentre trials, Lancet, 373, 482, 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61812-7 Reddy, 2014, Suvorexant: Something new for sleep?, Acta Neuropsychiatr, 14, 1 Michelson, 2014, Safety and efficacy of suvorexant during 1-year treatment of insomnia with subsequent abrupt treatment discontinuation: A phase 3 randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, Lancet Neurol, 13, 461, 10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70053-5