Pediatric CT radiation exposure: where we were, and where we are now

National Research Council (1998) Health risks from exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation: BEIR VII, phase I, letter report. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.17226/9526 United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (2012) Radiation facts, risks and realities https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-05/documents/402-k-10-008.pdf. Accessed 11 Sept 2018 Dendy PP, Heaton B (2012) Physics for diagnostic radiology Series in medical physics and biomedical engineering, vol 17, 3rd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton Williams R (2010) Stroke scans and radiation risk. Lancet Neurol 9:1150–1151 IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (2008) IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Volume 97. 1,3-butadiene, ethylene oxide and vinyl halides (vinyl fluoride, vinyl chloride and vinyl bromide). IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 97:3–471 Pierce DA, Shimizu Y, Preston DL et al (1996) Studies of the mortality of atomic bomb survivors. Report 12, Part I. Cancer: 1950-1990. Radiat Res 146:1–27 Ichimaru M, Ishimaru T, Belsky JL (1978) Incidence of leukemia in atomic bomb survivors belonging to a fixed cohort in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 1950-71. Radiation dose, years after exposure, age at exposure, and type of leukemia. J Radiat Res 19:262–282 Tomonaga M (1966) Statistical investigation of leukemia in Japan. N Z Med J 65S:863–869 Bizzozero OJ Jr, Johnson KG, Ciocco A et al (1967) Radiation-related leukemia in Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1946-1964. II. Ann Intern Med 66:522–530 Bushberg JT (2012) The essential physics of medical imaging, 3rd edn. Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia National Research Council, Committee to Assess Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation (2006) Health risks from exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation: BEIR VII, Phase 2. National Academies Press, Washington, DC Court-Brown WM, Doll R (1957) Leukaemia and aplastic anaemia in patients irradiated for ankylosing spondylitis. Medical Research Council Linet MS, Slovis TL, Miller DL et al (2012) Cancer risks associated with external radiation from diagnostic imaging procedures. CA Cancer J Clin 62:75–100 Brenner DJ (2002) Estimating cancer risks from pediatric CT: going from the qualitative to the quantitative. Pediatr Radiol 32:228–221 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2012) Sources, effects and risks of ionizing radiation: 2012 report to the general assembly, with annexes. United Nations, New York Land CE (1980) Estimating cancer risks from low doses of ionizing radiation. Science 209:1197–1203 Siegel JA, McCollough CH, Orton CG (2017) Advocating for use of the ALARA principle in the context of medical imaging fails to recognize that the risk is hypothetical and so serves to reinforce patients' fears of radiation. Med Phys 44:3–6 Doss M (2015) Counterpoint: should radiation dose from CT scans be a factor in patient care? No Chest 147:874–877 Brenner DJ, Hall EJ (2007) Computed tomography — an increasing source of radiation exposure. N Engl J Med 357:2277–2284 Pierce DA, Preston DL (2000) Radiation-related cancer risks at low doses among atomic bomb survivors. Radiat Res 154:178–186 Brenner D, Elliston C, Hall E, Berdon W (2001) Estimated risks of radiation-induced fatal cancer from pediatric CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 176:289–296 Mettler FA Jr, Wiest PW, Locken JA, Kelsey CA (2000) CT scanning: patterns of use and dose. J Radiol Prot 20:353–359 Paterson A, Frush DP, Donnelly LF (2001) Helical CT of the body: are settings adjusted for pediatric patients? AJR Am J Roentgenol 176:297–301 Frush DP (2003) Responsible use of CT. Radiology 229:289–291 (2002) The ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) concept in pediatric CT intelligent dose reduction. Multidisciplinary conference organized by the Society of [sic] Pediatric Radiology. August 18-19, 2001. Pediatr Radiol 32:217–313 Linton OW, Mettler FA Jr, National Council on Radiation Protection Measurements (2003) National conference on dose reduction in CT, with an emphasis on pediatric patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 181:321–329 Strauss KJ (2014) Developing patient-specific dose protocols for a CT scanner and exam using diagnostic reference levels. Pediatr Radiol 44:479–488 Siegel MJ, Schmidt B, Bradley D et al (2004) Radiation dose and image quality in pediatric CT: effect of technical factors and phantom size and shape. Radiology 233:515–522 McCollough CH, Bruesewitz MR, Kofler JM Jr (2006) CT dose reduction and dose management tools: overview of available options. Radiographics 26:503–512 Costello JE, Cecava ND, Tucker JE, Bau JL (2013) CT radiation dose: current controversies and dose reduction strategies. AJR Am J Roentgenol 201:1283–1290 Jacob K, Vivian G, Steel JR (2004) X-ray dose training: are we exposed to enough? Clin Radiol 59:928–934 Lee CI, Haims AH, Monico EP et al (2004) Diagnostic CT scans: assessment of patient, physician, and radiologist awareness of radiation dose and possible risks. Radiology 231:393–398 Goske MJ, Applegate KE, Boylan J et al (2008) The Image Gently campaign: working together to change practice. AJR Am J Roentgenol 190:273–274 Image Gently Alliance (2014) Image Gently development of pediatric CT protocols 2014. https://radiologiadetrinchera.files.wordpress.com/2018/01/ig-ct-protocols-111714.pdf. Accessed 01 June 2018 Brody AS, Frush DP, Huda W et al (2007) Radiation risk to children from computed tomography. Pediatrics 120:677–682 Greenwood TJ, Lopez-Costa RI, Rhoades PD et al (2015) CT dose optimization in pediatric radiology: a multiyear effort to preserve the benefits of imaging while reducing the risks. Radiographics 35:1539–1554 Huda W, Vance A (2007) Patient radiation doses from adult and pediatric CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 188:540–546 Larson DB, Rader SB, Forman HP, Fenton LZ (2007) Informing parents about CT radiation exposure in children: it's OK to tell them. AJR Am J Roentgenol 189:271–275 Shah NB, Platt SL (2008) ALARA: is there a cause for alarm? Reducing radiation risks from computed tomography scanning in children. Curr Opin Pediatr 20:243–247 Pearce MS, Salotti JA, Little MP et al (2012) Radiation exposure from CT scans in childhood and subsequent risk of leukaemia and brain tumours: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 380:499–505 International Commission on Radiological Protection (2007) The 2007 recommendations of the international commission on radiological protection. ICRP publication 103. Ann ICRP 37:1–332 Huda W, Atherton JV, Ware DE, Cumming WA (1997) An approach for the estimation of effective radiation dose at CT in pediatric patients. Radiology 203:417–422 Huda W, Ogden KM, Khorasani MR (2008) Converting dose-length product to effective dose at CT. Radiology 248:995–1003 Huda W, Ogden KM (2008) Computing effective doses to pediatric patients undergoing body CT examinations. Pediatr Radiol 38:415–423 Hendee WR, O'Connor MK (2012) Radiation risks of medical imaging: separating fact from fantasy. Radiology 264:312–321 Parakh A, Kortesniemi M, Schindera ST (2016) CT radiation dose management: a comprehensive optimization process for improving patient safety. Radiology 280:663–673 Hendee WR (1992) Estimation of radiation risks. BEIR V and its significance for medicine. JAMA 268:620–624 Huda W, Chamberlain CC, Rosenbaum AE, Garrisi W (2001) Radiation doses to infants and adults undergoing head CT examinations. Med Phys 28:393–399 Hollingsworth C, Frush DP, Cross M, Lucaya J (2003) Helical CT of the body: a survey of techniques used for pediatric patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 180:401–406 Arch ME, Frush DP (2008) Pediatric body MDCT: a 5-year follow-up survey of scanning parameters used by pediatric radiologists. AJR Am J Roentgenol 191:611–617 Bernier MO, Rehel JL, Brisse HJ et al (2012) Radiation exposure from CT in early childhood: a French large-scale multicentre study. Br J Radiol 85:53–60 American Association of Physicists in Medicine (2017) Routine pediatric chest CT. https://aapm.org/pubs/CTProtocols/documents/PediatricRoutineChestCT.pdf. Accessed 01 June 2018 Lauing B (2013) Radiation dose legislation: is your state next? Advisory Board. https://www.advisory.com/research/imaging-performance-partnership/the-reading-room/2013/06/radiation-dose-legislation-is-your-state-next. Accessed 11 Aug 2018 Domino D (2010) Court transcripts don't resolve questions in Mad River CT case. https://www.auntminnie.com/index.aspx?sec=sup&sub=imc&pag=dis&ItemID=91193. Accessed 01 June 2018 Mezrich JL, Siegel EL (2013) Dose reporting legislation in California: are we placing the idea of patient safety ahead of reality? J Am Coll Radiol 10:814–816 Shore R, Beck H, Boice JD Jr et al (2018) Implications of recent epidemiologic studies for the linear nonthreshold model and radiation protection. J Radiol Prot 38:1217–1233 Siegel JA, Sacks B, Pennington CW, Welsh JS (2017) Dose optimization to minimize radiation risk for children undergoing CT and nuclear medicine imaging is misguided and detrimental. J Nucl Med 58:865–868 Siegel JA, Pennington CW, Sacks B (2017) Subjecting radiologic imaging to the linear no-threshold hypothesis: a non sequitur of non-trivial proportion. J Nucl Med 58:1–6