Pathogenesis and management of the bleeding diathesis in acute promyelocytic leukaemia

Rickles, 1983, Activation of blood coagulation in cancer: Trousseau's syndrome revisited, Blood, 62, 14, 10.1182/blood.V62.1.14.14 Falanga, 1999, Pathophysiology of the thrombophilic state in the cancer patient, Seminars in Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 25, 173, 10.1055/s-2007-994919 Tallman, 1992, Reassessing the haemostatic disorder associated with acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Blood, 79, 543, 10.1182/blood.V79.3.543.543 Barbui, 2002, Management of bleeding and thrombosis in acute leukaemia and chronic myeloproliferative disorders, 2nd edn Barbui, 1998, The impact of all-trans-retinoic acid on the coagulopathy of acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Blood, 91, 3093, 10.1182/blood.V91.9.3093 Rickles, 1992, Haemostatic alterations in cancer patients, Cancer and Metastasis Reviews, 11, 237, 10.1007/BF01307180 Falanga, 1993, Guidelines for clotting studies in cancer patients, Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 70, 343 Falanga, 1994, The hypercoagulable state in cancer: evidence for impaired thrombin inhibition, Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis, 5, S19, 10.1097/00001721-199401000-00004 Warrell, 1993, Acute promyelocytic leukaemia, New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 177, 10.1056/NEJM199307153290307 Golomb, 1980, ‘Microgranular’ acute promyelocytic leukaemia: a distinct clinical, ultrastructural and cytogenetic entity, Blood, 55, 253, 10.1182/blood.V55.2.253.253 Rovelli, 1992, Microgranular variant of acute promyelocytic leukaemia in children, Journal of Clinical Oncology, 10, 1413, 10.1200/JCO.1992.10.9.1413 Fenaux, 1993, Management of acute promyelocytic leukaemia, European Journal of Haematology, 50, 65, 10.1111/j.1600-0609.1993.tb00144.x Rodeghiero, 1990, Early deaths and anti-haemorrhagic treatments in acute promyelocytic leukaemia. A GIMEMA retrospective study in 268 consecutive patients, Blood, 75, 2112, 10.1182/blood.V75.11.2112.2112 Castaigne, 1990, All-trans retinoic acid as a differentation therapy for acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Blood, 76, 1704, 10.1182/blood.V76.9.1704.1704 Tallman, 1993, New insight into the pathogenesis of coagulation dysfunction in acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Leukaemia & Lymphoma, 11, 27, 10.3109/10428199309054728 Falanga, 1998, Mechanisms of hypercoagulation in malignancy and during chaemotherapy, Haemostasis, 2, 50 Bauer, 1984, Thrombin generation in acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Blood, 64, 791, 10.1182/blood.V64.4.791.791 Myers, 1981, Fibrinopeptide A in acute leukaemia: relationship of activation of blood coagulation to disease activity, Blood, 57, 518, 10.1182/blood.V57.3.518.518 Booth, 1984, Plasmin-alpha-2-antiplasmin complexes in bleeding disorders characterized by primary or secondary fibrinolysis, British Journal of Haematology, 56, 545, 10.1111/j.1365-2141.1984.tb02179.x Reddy, 1990, Global and haemostatic markers in acute myeloid leukaemia, American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 94, 397, 10.1093/ajcp/94.4.397 Speiser, 1990, Haemostatic and fibrinolytic parameters in patients with acute myeloid leukaemia: activation of blood coagulation, fibrinolysis and unspecific proteolysis, Blut, 61, 298, 10.1007/BF01732881 Falanga, 1995, Loss of blast cell procoagulant activity and improvement of haemostatic variables in patients with acute promyelocytic leukaemia given all-trans-retinoic acid, Blood, 86, 1072, 10.1182/blood.V86.3.1072.1072 Tallman, 1995, Procoagulant, profibrinolytic and proinflammatory mediators in patients with previously untreated acute promyelocytic leukaemia (APL), Blood, 86, 172a Dombret, 1993, Coagulation disorders associated with acute promyelocytic leukaemia: corrective effect of all-trans-retinoic acid, Leukaemia, 7, 2 Dombret, 1995, In vivo thrombin and plasmin activities in patients with acute promyelocytic leukaemia (APL): effect of all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) therapy, Leukaemia, 9, 19 Kawai, 1994, Rapid improvement of coagulopathy by all-trans-retinoic acid in acute promyelocytic leukaemia, American Journal of Hematology, 46, 184, 10.1002/ajh.2830460305 Watanabe, 1997, Long-term follow-up of haemostatic molecular markers during remission induction therapy with all-trans retinoic acid for acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 77, 641, 10.1055/s-0038-1656026 Muller-Berghaus, 1985, Normal antithrombin III activity and concentration in experimental disseminated intravascular coagulation, Scandinavian Journal of Clinical Laboratory Investigation, 45, 107 Rodeghiero, 1984, Liver dysfunction rather than intravascular coagulation as the main cause of low protein C an antithrombin in acute leukaemia, Blood, 63, 965, 10.1182/blood.V63.4.965.965 Avvisati, 1988, Acquired alpha-2-antiplasmin deficiency in acute promyelocytic leukaemia, British Journal of Haematology, 70, 43, 10.1111/j.1365-2141.1988.tb02432.x Schwartz, 1986, Epsilon-aminocaproic acid in the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukaemia: acquired a-2-antiplasmin inhibitor deficiency, Annals Internal of Medicine, 105, 873, 10.7326/0003-4819-105-6-873 Menell, 1999, Annexin II and bleeding in acute promyelocytic leukaemia, New England Journal of Medicine, 340, 994, 10.1056/NEJM199904013401303 Federici, 1996, Proteolysis of von Willebrand factor is decreased in acute promyelocytic leukaemia by treatment with all-trans-retinoic acid, British Journal of Haematology, 92, 733, 10.1046/j.1365-2141.1996.401939.x Tallman, 2002, All-trans retinoic acid in acute promyelocytic leukaemia: long-term outcome and prognostic factor analysis from the North American Intergroup protocol, Blood, 100, 4298, 10.1182/blood-2002-02-0632 Eiseman, 1954, Thromboplastic activity of leukaemic white cells, Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 86, 763, 10.3181/00379727-86-21226 Gralnick, 1973, Studies of the procoagulant and fibrinolytic activity of promyelocytes in acute promyelocytic leukaemia, British Journal of Haematology, 30, 151 Andoh, 1987, Tissue factor activity in leukaemia cells. Special reference to disseminated intravascular coagulation, Cancer, 59, 748, 10.1002/1097-0142(19870215)59:4<748::AID-CNCR2820590414>3.0.CO;2-E Gouault-Heilman, 1975, The procoagulant factor of leukaemic promyelocytes: demonstration of immunologic cross-reactivity with human brain tissue factor, British Journal of Haematology, 30, 151, 10.1111/j.1365-2141.1975.tb00529.x Bauer, 1989, Tissue factor gene expression in acute myeloblastic leukaemia, Thrombosis Research, 56, 425, 10.1016/0049-3848(89)90255-7 Hair, 1996, Tissue factor expression in human leukaemic cells, Leukaemia Research, 20, 1, 10.1016/0145-2126(95)00107-7 Falanga, 1988, A new procoagulant in acute leukaemia, Blood, 71, 870, 10.1182/blood.V71.4.870.870 Donati, 1990, Cancer procoagulant in acute non lymphoid leukaemia: Relationship of enzyme detection to disease activity, Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 64, 11, 10.1055/s-0038-1647145 Falanga, 1994, Cancer procoagulant in the human promyelocytic cell line NB4 and its modulation by retinoic acid, Leukaemia, 8, 156 Rickles, 1993, All-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) inhibits the expression of tissue factor in human progranulocytic leukaemia cells, Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 69, 1042 Koyama, 1994, All-trans-retinoic acid upregulates thrombomodulin and downregulates tissue factor expression in acute promyelocytic leukaemia cells: distinct expression of thrombomodulin and tissue factor in human leukaemic cells, Blood, 84, 3001, 10.1182/blood.V84.9.3001.3001 De Stefano, 1995, Effect of all-trans-retinoic acid on procoagulant and fibrinolytic activities of cultured blast cells from patients with acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Blood, 86, 3535, 10.1182/blood.V86.9.3535.bloodjournal8693535 Falanga, 1998, Cancer procoagulant and tissue factor are differently modulated by all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) in acute promyelocytic leukaemia cells, Blood, 92, 143, 10.1182/blood.V92.1.143.413k18_143_151 Saito, 1996, Anticoagulant effects of retinoic acid on leukaemic cells, Blood, 87, 657, 10.1182/blood.V87.2.657.bloodjournal872657 Ishii, 1992, Retinoic acid counteracts both the downregulation of thrombomodulin and the induction of tissue factor in cultured human endothelial cells exposed to tumour necrosis factor, Blood, 80, 2556, 10.1182/blood.V80.10.2556.2556 Falanga, 1996, All-trans-retinoic acid counteracts endothelial cell procoagulant activity induced by a human promyelocytic leukaemia-derived cell line (NB4), Blood, 87, 613, 10.1182/blood.V87.2.613.bloodjournal872613 Conese, 1991, Inhibitory effect of retinoids on the generation of procoagulant activity by blood mononuclear phagocytes, Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 66, 662, 10.1055/s-0038-1646482 Oeth, 1998, Retinoic acid selectively inhibits lipopolysaccharide induction of tissue factor gene expression in human monocytes, Blood, 91, 2857, 10.1182/blood.V91.8.2857.2857_2857_2865 Zhu, 1999, Tissue factors on acute promyelocytic leukaemia and endothelial cells are differentially regulated by retinoic acid, arsenic trioxide and chaemotherapeutic agents, Leukaemia, 13, 1062, 10.1038/sj.leu.2401448 Raelson, 1996, The PML/RARα oncoprotein is a direct molecular target of retinoic acid in acute promyelocytic leukaemia cells, Blood, 88, 2826, 10.1182/blood.V88.8.2826.bloodjournal8882826 Brand, 1991, Tissue factor mRNA in THP-1 monocytic cells is regulated at both transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels in response to lipopolysaccharide, Molecular Cell Biology, 11, 4732, 10.1128/MCB.11.9.4732 Cheng, 1999, Distinct leukaemia phenotypes in transgenic mice and different corepressor interactions generated by promyelocytic leukaemia variant fusion genes PLZF-RARα and NPM-RARα, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 96, 6318, 10.1073/pnas.96.11.6318 Bennett, 1989, The bleeding disorder in acute promyelocytic leukaemia: fibrinolysis due to u-PA rather than defibrination, British Journal of Haematology, 71, 511, 10.1111/j.1365-2141.1989.tb06311.x Francis, 1987, Tissue plasminogen activator antigen and activity in disseminated intravascular coagulation. Clinicopathologic correlations, Journal of Laboratory Clinical Medicine, 110, 541 Stephens, 1988, Production of an active urokinase by leukaemia cells. A novel distinction from cell lines of solid tumours, Leukaemia Research, 12, 419, 10.1016/0145-2126(88)90061-6 Nevo, 1998, Acute bleeding after bone marrow transplantation (BMT)- Incidence and effect on survival. A quantitative analysis in 1402 patients, Blood, 91, 1469, 10.1182/blood.V91.4.1469 Egbring, 1977, Demonstration of granulocytic proteases in plasma of patients with acute leukaemia and septicemia with coagulation defects, Blood, 49, 219, 10.1182/blood.V49.2.219.219 Schmidt, 1974, Effect of elastase-like and chymotrypsin-like neutral proteases from human granulocytes on isolated clotting factors, Thrombosis Research, 6, 315, 10.1016/0049-3848(75)90081-X Brower, 1982, Proteolytic cleavage and inactivation of a-2-plasmin inhibitor and C1 inactivator by human polymorphonuclear leukocyte elastase, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 257, 9849, 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)34149-8 Sterrenberg, 1984, Anticoagulant properties of purified X-like fragments of human fibrinogen produced by degradation with leukocyte elastase, Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 51, 398, 10.1055/s-0038-1661111 Sterrenberg, 1983, Purification and characterization of a D-like fragment from human fibrinogen produced by human leukocyte elastase, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 775, 300, 10.1016/0304-4165(83)90218-0 Wijermans, 1989, Combined procoagulant activity and proteolytic activity of acute promyelocytic leukaemic cells: reversal of the bleeding disorder by cell differentiation, Blood, 73, 800, 10.1182/blood.V73.3.800.800 Tapiovaara, 1994, Induction of differentiating therapy of promyelocytic NB4 cells by retinoic acid is associated with rapid increase in urokinase activity subsequently downregulated by production of inhibitors, Blood, 83, 1883, 10.1182/blood.V83.7.1883.1883 Griffin, 1987, Secretion of interleukin-1 by acute myeloid leukaemia cells in vitro induces endothelial cells to secrete colony-stimulating factors, Blood, 70, 1218, 10.1182/blood.V70.4.1218.1218 Cozzolino, 1988, Potential role of interleukin-1 as the trigger for diffuse intravascular coagulation in acute nonlymphoblastic leukaemia, American Journal of Medicine, 84, 240, 10.1016/0002-9343(88)90420-2 Colucci, 1983, Cultured human endothelial cells generate tissue factor in response to endotoxin, Journal of Clinical Investigation, 71, 1893, 10.1172/JCI110945 Bevilacqua, 1986, Recombinant tumour necrosis factor induces procoagulant activity in cultured human vascular endothelium: characterization and comparison with the actions of interleukin-1, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 83, 4533, 10.1073/pnas.83.12.4533 Dittman, 1990, Structure and function of thrombomodulin: a natural anticoagulant, Blood, 75, 329, 10.1182/blood.V75.2.329.329 Moore, 1989, Tumour necrosis factor leads to the internalization and degradation of thrombomodulin from the surface of bovine aortic endothelial cells in culture, Blood, 73, 159, 10.1182/blood.V73.1.159.159 Nachman, 1993, Interleukin 1 induces endothelial cell synthesis of plasminogen activator inhibitor, Journal of Experimental Medicine, 163, 1595, 10.1084/jem.163.6.1595 Dubois, 1994, Modulation of IL-8, IL-1β, and G-CSF by all-trans retinoic acid in acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Leukaemia, 8, 1750 Giannı̀, 1995, The effect of dexamethasone on proinflammatory cytokine expression, cell growth and maturation during granulocytic differentiation of acute promyelocytic leukaemia cells, European Cytokine Network, 6, 157 Mantovani, 1992, Cytokine regulation of endothelial cell function, Federation of American Societies of Experimental Biology Journal, 6, 2591, 10.1096/fasebj.6.8.1592209 Giavazzi, 1993, Rolling and adhesion of human tumour cells on vascular endothelium under physiological flow conditions, Journal of Clinical Investigation, 92, 3038, 10.1172/JCI116928 Rickles, 1994, Leukocytes and tumour cells in thrombosis, 1164 Marchetti, 1996, All-trans-retinoic acid increases the adhesion to endothelium of the acute promyelocytic leukaemia cell line NB4, British Journal of Haematology, 93, 360, 10.1046/j.1365-2141.1996.4911029.x Vahdat, 1994, Early mortality and the retinoic acid syndrome in acute promyelocytic leukaemia: impact of leukocytosis, low-dose chaemotherapy, PMN/RAR-alpha isoform, and CD13 expression in patients treated with all-trans retinoic acid, Blood, 84, 3843, 10.1182/blood.V84.11.3843.bloodjournal84113843 Di Noto, 1996, All-trans retinoic acid promotes a differential regulation of adhesion molecules on acute myeloid blast cells, British Journal of Haematology, 88, 247, 10.1111/j.1365-2141.1994.tb05014.x Larson, 1997, Retinoic acid induces aggregation of the acute promyelocytic leukaemia cell line NB4 by utilization of LFA-1 and ICAM-2, Blood, 90, 2747, 10.1182/blood.V90.7.2747 Tallman, 2000, Clinical description of 44 patients with acute promyelocytic leukaemia who developed the retinoic acid syndrome, Blood, 95, 90 McKee, 1994, Intravascular leukocyte thrombi and aggregates as a cause of morbidity and mortalitiy in leukaemia, Medicine, 53, 463, 10.1097/00005792-197411000-00006 Frankel, 1992, The ‘retinoic acid syndrome’ in acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Annals of Internal Medicine, 117, 292, 10.7326/0003-4819-117-4-292 Marchetti, 1999, Endothelial cell/leukaemic cell interaction effect of all-trans retinoic acid on cell/cell adhesion, Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 16a Melnick, 1999, Deconstructing a disease: RARα, its fusion partners, and their roles in the pathogenesis of acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Blood, 93, 3167, 10.1182/blood.V93.10.3167.410k44_3167_3215 Chang, 1976, Causes of death in adults with acute leukaemia, Medicine, 55, 259, 10.1097/00005792-197605000-00005 Murphy, 1982, Indications for platelet transfusion in children with acute leukaemia, American Journal of Hematology, 12, 347, 10.1002/ajh.2830120406 Rintels, 1994, Therapeutic support of the patient with thrombocytopenia, Hematology/Oncology Clinics of North America, 8, 1131, 10.1016/S0889-8588(18)30126-6 Heckman, 1997, Randomized study of prophylactic platelet transfusion during induction therapy for adult acute leukaemia, Journal of Clinical Oncology, 15, 1143, 10.1200/JCO.1997.15.3.1143 Rebulla, 1997, The threshold for prophylactic platelet transfusions in adults with acute myeloid leukaemia, New England Journal of Medicine, 337, 1870, 10.1056/NEJM199712253372602 Kantarjian, 1986, Acute promyelocytic leukaemia. M.D. Anderson Hospital experience, American Journal of Medicine, 80, 789, 10.1016/0002-9343(86)90617-0 Goldberg, 1987, Is heparin administration necessary during induction chaemotherapy for patients with acute promyelocytic leukaemia?, Blood, 69, 187, 10.1182/blood.V69.1.187.187 Bassan, 1995, Short-term treatment for adult hypergranular and microgranular acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Leukaemia, 9, 238 Hashimoto, 1994, Fatal thromboembolism in acute promyelocytic leukaemia during all-trans-retinoic acid therapy combined with antifibrinolytic therapy for prophylaxis of haemorrhage, Leukaemia, 8, 1113 Mandelli, 1997, Molecular remission in PML/RARa-positive acute promyelocytic leukaemia by combined all-trans retinoic acid and idarubicin (AIDA) therapy, Blood, 90, 1014 Fenaux, 1992, All-trans retinoic acid followed by intensive chaemotherapy gives a high complete remission rate and may prolong remission in newly diagnosed acute promyelocytic leukaemia. A pilot study on 26 cases, Blood, 80, 2176, 10.1182/blood.V80.9.2176.2176 Frankel, 1994, All-trans retinoic acid for acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Annals of Internal Medicine, 120, 278, 10.7326/0003-4819-120-4-199402150-00004 Kanamaru, 1995, All-trans retinoic acid for the treatment of newly diagnosed adult acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Blood, 85, 1202, 10.1182/blood.V85.5.1202.bloodjournal8551202 Estey, 1997, Treatment of newly diagnosed acute promyelocytic leukaemia without cytarabine, Journal of Clinical Oncology, 15, 483, 10.1200/JCO.1997.15.2.483 Fenaux, 1993, Effect of all-trans retinoic acid in newly diagnosed acute promyelocytic leukaemia. Results of a multicenter randomized trial, Blood, 82, 3241, 10.1182/blood.V82.11.3241.3241 Tallman, 1997, A prospective randomized study of all-trans-retinoic acid induction and maintenance therapy for patients with acute promyelocytic leukaemia, New England Journal of Medicine, 337, 1021, 10.1056/NEJM199710093371501 Burnett, 1999, Presenting white blood cell count and kinetics of molecular remission predict prognosis in acute promyelocytic leukaemia treated with all-trans-retinoic acid: results of the randomized MRC trial, Blood, 93, 4131, 10.1182/blood.V93.12.4131 Fenaux, 1999, A randomized comparison of all trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) followed by chaemotherapy and ATRA plus chaemotherapy and the role of maintenace therapy in newly diagnosed acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Blood, 94, 1192, 10.1182/blood.V94.4.1192 Sanz, 1999, A modified AIDA protocol with anthracycline-based consolidation results in high antileukaemic efficacy and reduced toxicity in newly diagnosed PML/RARa-positive acute promyelocytic leukaemia, Blood, 94, 3015 Tallman, 2002, All-trans retinoic acid in acute promyelocytic leukaemia: long-term outcome and prognostic factor analysis from the North American Intergroup protocol, Blood, 100, 4298, 10.1182/blood-2002-02-0632 Horie, 1992, Retinoic acid stimulates expression of thrombomodulin, a cell surface anticoagulant glycoprotein, on human endothelial cells: Differences between up-regulation of thrombomodulin by retinoic acid and cAMP, Biochemical Journal, 281, 149, 10.1042/bj2810149 Kooistra, 1991, Stimulation of tissue-type plasminogen activators synthesis by retinoids in cultured human endothelial cells and rat tissues in vivo, Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 65, 565, 10.1055/s-0038-1648191