Path dependence and regional economic evolution

Allen, J., Massey, D., Cochrane, A. (1998) Rethinking the Region. London: Routledge.

Anderlini, L., Ianni, A. (1996) Path dependence and learning from neighbours. Games and Economic Behaviour, 13: 141–177.

Antonelli, C. (1997) The economics of path dependence in industrial organization. International Journal of Industrial Organisation, 15: 643–675.

Araujo, L., Harrison, D. (2002) Path dependence, agency and technological evolution. Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, 14: 5–19.

Archer, M. (1996) Culture and Agency: The Place of Culture in Social Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Arthur, W. B. (1988) Self-reinforcing mechanisms in economics. In P. Anderson, K. Arrow and D. Pines (eds) The Economy as an Evolving, Complex System. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 9–31.

Arthur, W. B. (1989) Competing technologies, increasing returns, and ‘lock-in’ by historical events. Economic Journal, 99: 116–131.

Arthur, W. B. (1994) Increasing Returns and Path Dependence in the Economy. Michigan: Michigan University Press.

Arthur, W. B. (1994) Path Dependence, Self-Reinforcement and Human Learning, in Increasing Returns and Path Dependence in the Economy. Michigan: Michigan University Press, 133–158.

Arthur, W. B. (1994) Industry Location Patterns and the Importance of History, Increasing Returns and Path Dependence in the Economy. Michigan: Michigan University Press, 49–67.

Arthur, W. B. (1994) Urban Systems and Historical Path Dependence, in Increasing Returns and Path Dependence in the Economy. Michigan: Michigan University Press, 99–110.

Arthur, W. B., Ermoliev, Y. M., Kaniovski, Y. M. (1987) Path dependent processes and the emergence of macrostructure. European Journal of Operational Research, 30: 294–303.

Audretsch, D. B., Houweling, P., Thurik, A. R. (2004) Industry evolution: diversity, selection and the role of learning. International Small Business Journal, 22: 331–348.

Barnett, W. P., Sorenson, O. (2002) The red queen in organizational creation and development. Industrial and Corporate Change, 11: 289–325.

Bassanini, A. P., Dosi, G. (2001) When and how chance and human will can twist the arms of clio: an essay on path dependence in a world of irreversibilities. In R. Garud, and P. Karnøe (eds) (2001) Path Dependence and Creation. London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 41–68.

Bathelt, H. (2001) Regional competence and economic recovery: divergent growth paths in Boston's high technology economy. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 13: 287–314.

Bathelt, H., Boggs, J. S. (2003) Towards a reconceptualization of regional development paths: is Leipzig's media cluster a continuation of or a rupture with the past? Economic Geography, 79: 265–293.

Bathelt, H., Glückler, J. (2003) Towards a relational economic geography. Journal of Economic Geography, 3: 117–144.

Bebchuk, L., Roe, M. (1999) A theory of path dependence in corporate ownership and governance. Stanford Law Review, 52: 127–170.

Best, M. (2001) The New Competitive Advantage: The Renewal of American Industry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Bode, E. (2001) Is regional innovative activity path dependent? An empirical analysis for Germany. Working Paper 1058. Kiel Institute for World Economics, Kiel.

Boschma, R. A. (2005) Proximity and Innovation: A Critical Assessment. Regional Studies39(1), 61–74.

Boschma, R. A. (2004) Competitiveness of regions from an evolutionary perspective. Regional Studies, 38: 1001–1014.

Boschma, R. A., Frenken, K. (2003) Evolutionary economics and industrial location. Review for Regional Research, 23: 183–200.

Boschma, R. A., Frenken, K. (2006) Why is economic geography not an evolutionary science? Journal of Economic Geography, 6: 273–302.

Boschma, R. A., Lambooy, J. G. (1999) evolutionary economics and economic geography. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 9: 411–429.

Boschma, R., van der Knaap, B. (1997) New technology and windows of locational opportunity. In J. Reijnders (ed.) Economics and Evolution. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 171–202.

Boschma, R., Wenting, R. (2005) The spatial evolution of the British automobile industry. Papers in Evolutionary Economic Geography, No: 05.04. Department of Economic Geography, Utrecht University.

Boschma, R., Weterings, A. (2005) The effect of regional differences on the performance of software firms in the Netherlands. Journal of Economic Geography, 5: 567–588.

Bresnahan, T., Gambardella, A., Saxenian, A. (2005) ‘Old economy’ inputs for ‘new economy’ outcomes: cluster formation in the New Silicon Valleys. In S. Breschi and F. Malerba (eds) Clusters, Networks and Innovation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 113–135.

Bridges, A. (2000) Path dependence, sequence, history, theory. Studies in American Political Development, 14: 109–112.

Castaldi, C., Dosi, G. (2003) The grip of history and the scope for novelty: some results and open questions on path dependence in economic processes. Working Paper 2003/02. Laboratory of Economics and Management, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, University of Pisa.

Checkland, S. (1976) The Upas Tree: Glasgow 1875–1975. Glasgow: Glasgow University Press.

Cooke, P., Morgan, K. (1998) The Associational Economy: Firms, Regions and Innovation, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Cowan, R. (1990) Nuclear power reactors: a study in technological ‘lock-in’. Journal of Economic History, 50: 541–567.

Cowan, R., Gunby, P. (1996) Sprayed to death: path dependence, ‘lock-in’ and pest control strategies. Economic Journal, 106: 521–542.

Cowan, R., Hulten, S. (1996) Escaping lock-in: the case of the electric vehicle. Technology Forecasting and Social Change, 53: 61–79.

Cox, K. (1996) Period and place, capitalist development, and the flexible specialization debate. In D. C. Knudsen (ed.) The Transition to Flexibility. London: Kluwer, 155–177.

Cross, R. (1993) On the foundations of hysteresis in economic systems. Economics and Philosophy, 9: 53–74.

Crouch, C., Farrell, H. (2004) Breaking the path of institutional development? Alternatives to the new determinism. Rationality and Society, 16: 5–43.

David, P. A. (1985) Clio and the economics of QWERTY. American Economic Review, 75: 332–337.

David, P. A. (1986) Understanding the economics of QWERTY: the necessity of history. In W. N. Parket (ed.) Economic History and the Modern Economics. Oxford: Balckwell.

David, P. A. (1988) Path dependence: putting the past into the future of economics. The Economic Series Technical Report 533. Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences, Stanford University, CA.

David, P. A. (1992) Heroes, herds and hysteresis in technological history, Industrial and Corporate Change, 1: 129–179.

David, P. A. (1993) Path dependence and predictability in dynamic systems with local network externalities: a paradigm for historical economics. In D. Foray and C. Freeman (eds) Technology and the Wealth of Nations. London: Pinter.

David, P. A. (1993) Historical economics in the long run: some implications of path dependence. In G. D. Snooks (ed.) Historical Analysis in Economics. London: Routledge.

David, P. A. (1994) Why are institutions the ‘carriers of history’? Path dependence and the evolution of conventions, organisations and institutions. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 5: 205–220.

David, P. A. (1997) Path dependence and the quest for historical economics: one more chorus of the ballad of QWERTY. Discussion Papers in Economic and Social History. University of Oxford.

David, P. A. (1998) Common agency contracting and the emergence of open science institutions. The American Economic Review, 88(2): 15–21.

David, P. A. (1999) At lat: a remedy for chronic QWERTY-skepticism. Discussion Paper for the European Summer School in Industrial Dynamics. Institute d'Etudes Scientifiques de Cargese.

David, P. A. (1999) Krugman's economic geography of development: NEGs, POGs and naked models in space. International Regional Science Review, 22: 169–172.

David, P. A. (2000) The digital technology boomerang: New intellectual property rights threaten global open services, Working Paper 00016 Department of Economics, Stanford University.

David, P. A. (2001) Path dependence, its critics and the quest for ‘historical economics’. In P. Garrouste and S. Ioannides (eds) Evolution and Path Dependence in Economic Ideas. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 15–40.

David, P. A. (2005) Path dependence in economic processes: implications for policy analysis in dynamical systems contexts. In K. Dopfer (ed.) The Evolutionary Foundations of Economics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 151–194.

David, P. A. (2005) Path dependence and historical social science: an introductory lecture. Paper presented at the Symposium on Twenty years of Path Dependence and Qwerty-Effects. SIEPR Policy Paper No. 04-022. Russian University-Higher School of Economics, Moscow, 13 May 2005.

David, P. A., Foray, D., Dalle, J. N. (1998) Marshallian externalities and the emergence and spatial stability of technological enclaves. Economics of Innovation and New Technologies, 6(2-3): 147–182.

Dimitrakopoulos, D. G. (2001) Incrementalism and path dependence. Journal of Common Market Studies, 39: 405–422.

Dopfer, K., Potts, J. (2004) Evolutionary realism; a new ontology for econmics. Journal of Economic Methodology, 11: 195–212.

Dopfer, K., Potts, J. (2004) Evolutionary foundations of economics. In J. S. Metcalfe and J. Foster (eds) Evolution and Economic Complexity. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 3–23.

Dosi, G., Metcalfe, J. S. (1991) On some notions of irreversibility in economics. In P. P. Saviotti and S. Metcalfe (eds) Evolutionary Theories of Economic and Technological Change. Chur: Harwood.

Eich-Born, M., Hassink, R. (2005) On the battle between shipbuilding regions in Germany and South Korea. Environment and Planning A, 37: 635–656.

Elster, J. (1976) A note on hysteresis in the social sciences. Synthese, 33: 371–391.

Engstrand, A., Stam, E. (2002) Embeddedness and economic transformation of manufacturing: a comparative research of two regions. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 23: 357–388.

Essletzbichtler, J. (2005) Diversity, stability and regional growth in the U.S. (1975–2002). Papers in Evolutionary Economic Geography, Number 03.13. Utrecht University Urban and regional Research Centre, Utrecht.

Essletzbichler, J., Rigby, D. (2004) Competition, variety and the geography of technology evolution. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 96: 48–62.

Essletzbichler, J., Winther, L. (1999) Regional technological change and path dependency in the Danish food processing industry. Geografisak Annaler, B Human Geography, 81: 179–196.

Feldman, M. P. (2005) The entrepreneurial event revisited: firm formation in a regional context. In S. Breschi and F. Malerba (eds) Clusters, Networks and Innovation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 136–168.

Fine, B. (2004) Addressing the critical and the real in critical realism. In P. Lewis (ed.) Transforming Economics: Perspectives on the Critical Realist Project. London: Routledge, 202–226.

Florida, R. (2002) The Rise of the Creative Class. New York: Basic Books.

Foster, J., Metcalfe, M. (2004) (Eds.) Evolution and Economic Complexity. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Frankel, M. (1955) Obsolescence and technological change in a maturing economy. The American Economic Review, 45(3): 296–319.

Franz, W. (1990) Hysteresis in economic relationships: an overview. Empirical Economics, 15: 109–125.

Frenken, K., Van Oort, F. G., Verburg, T., Boschma, R. (2005) Variety and regional economic growth in the Netherlands. Papers in Evolutionary Economic Geography, No: 05.02. Department of Economic Geography, Utrecht University.

Fuchs, G., Shapira, P. (eds) (2005) Rethinking Regional Innovation and Change, Path Dependency or Regional Breakthrough? New York: Springer Verlag, 23–42.

Garrouste, P., Ioannides, S. (eds) (2001) Evolution and Path Dependence in Economic Ideas. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Garud, R., Karnøe, P. (2001) Path creation as a process of mindful deviation. In R. Garud and P. Karnøe (eds) Path Dependence and Creation. London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1–38.

Garud, R., Karnøe, P. (eds) (2001) Path Dependence and Creation. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Gertler, M. (2005) Tacit knowledge, path dependency and local trajectories of growth. In G. Fuchs and P. Shapira (eds) Rethinking Regional Innovation and Change. Path Dependency or Regional Breakthrough? New York: Springer Verlag, 23–42.

Glaeser, E. L. (2005) Reinventing Boston, 1630–2003. Journal of Economic Geography, 5: 119–154.

Glasmeier, A. (1991) Technological discontinuities and flexible production networks: the case of Switzerland and the world watch industry. Research Policy, 20: 469–485.

Glasmeier, A. (2000) Manufacturing Time: Global Competition in the Watch Industry, 1795–2000. New York: The Guilford Press.

Goldstone, J. A. (1998) Initial conditions, general laws, path dependence and explanation in historical sociology. American Journal of Sociology, 104: 829–845.

Grabher, (1993) The weakness of strong ties: the ‘lock-in’ of regional development in the Ruhr area. In G. Grabher (ed.) The Embedded Firm: On the Socio-Economics of Industrial Networks. London: Routledge.

Grabher, G., Stark, D. (1997) Organizing diversity: evolutionary theory, network analysis and post-socialism. Regional Studies, 31: 533–544.

Granovetter, M. (1973) The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78: 1360–1380.

Greener, I. (2005) The potential of path dependence in political studies. Politics, 25: 62–72.

Håkansson, H., Lundgren, A. (1997) Path dependence in time and space—path dependence in industrial networks. In L. Magnusson and J. Ottosson (eds) Evolutionary Economics and Path Dependence. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 119–137.

Hall, P. (1994) Innovation, Economics and Evolution: Theoretical Perspective on Changing Technology in Economic Systems. London; Harvester Wheatsheaf.

Harvey, D. (1982) Limits to Capital. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Harvey, D. (1985) The geopolitics of capitalism. In D. Gregory and J. Urry (eds) Social Relations and Spatial Structures. London: Macmillan, 128–163.

Hassink, R. (2005) How to unlock regional economies from path dependency? From learning region to learning cluster. European Planning Studies, 13: 521–535.

Hassink, R. (2005) Geography, networks and renewal in old industrial areas. Paper prepared for Fourth European Meeting on Applied Evolutionary Economics. Utrecht 19–21 May 2005.

Hirsch, P. M., Gillespie, J. J. (2001) Unpacking path dependence: differential valuations accorded history across disciplines. In R. Garud and P. Karnøe (eds) Path Dependence and Creation. London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 69–90.

Joilnk, A., Vromen, J. J. (2001) Path dependence in scientific evolution. In P. Garrouste and S. Ioannides (eds) Evolution and Path Dependence in Economic Ideas. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 205–224.

Katzner, D. (1993) Some notes on the role of history and the definition of hysteresis and related concepts in economic analysis. Journal of Post-Keynesian Economics, 15: 323–345.

Kenney, M., von Burg, U. (2001) Paths and regions: the creation and growth of Silicon Valley. In R. Garud and P. Karnøe (eds) Path Dependence and Creation. London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 127–148.

Kiser, E. (1996) The revival of narrative in historical sociology. Politics and Society, 24: 249–271.

Klaes, M. (2004) Evolutionary economics: in defence of ‘vagueness’. Journal of Economic Methodology, 11: 359–376.

Klepper, S. (2002) The Evolution of the US Automobile Industry and Detroit as its Capital, Paper presented at the 9th Congress of the Schumpeter Society, Gainsville, Florida, March 27–30.

Klepper, S. (2002) Capabilities of new firms and the evolution of the US automobile industry. Industrial and Corporate Change, 11(4): 645–666.

Krugman, P. (1991) Geography and Trade. Leuven and Cambridge, MA: Leuven University Press and MIT Press.

Krugman, P. (1996) The Self-Organizing Economy. Oxford: Blackwell.

Krugman, P. (2001) History and industry location: the case of the manufacturing belt. American Economic Review, 81: 80–83.

Lambooy J. G., Boschma, R. A. (2001) Evolutionary economics and regional policy. Annals of Regional Science, 35: 113–131.

Lawson, C. (1999) Towards a competence theory of the region. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 23: 151–166.

Lawson, T. (1997) Economics and Reality. London: Routledge.

Lazerson, M. H., Lorenzoni, G. (1999) The firms that feed industrial districts: a return to the Italian source. Industrial and Corporate Change, 8: 235–266.

Lester, R. K. (2003) Universities and local systems of innovation: a strategic approach. ESRC Workshop on High-Tech Business: Clusters, Constraints, and Economic Development. Robinson College, Cambridge, 28 May 2003.

Lester, R. K. (2006) Universities, innovation, and the competitiveness of local and national economies. Centre for Business Research 10-year Anniversary Summit on Innovation and Governance, University of Cambridge, UK, 29 March 2006.

Liebowitz, S. J., Margolis, S. E. (1990) The fable of the keys. Journal of Law and Economics, 33: 1–25.

Liebowitz, S. J., Margolis, S. E. (1994) Network Externality: An Uncommon Tragedy. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 8: 133–150.

Liebowitz, S. J., Margolis, S. E. (1995) Path dependence, ‘lock-in’ and history. Journal of Law, Economics and Organization, 11: 205–226.

Liebowitz, S. J., Margolis, S. E. (2001) The Economics of Qwerty. In S. Liebowitz (ed.) The Economics of Qwerty: History, Theory, Policy, Papers by Stan Liebowitz and Stephen Margolis. New York: New York University Press.

Magnusson, L. (2001) The role of path dependence in the history of regulation. In L. Magnusson and J. Ottoson (eds) The State, Regulation, and the Economy: An Historical Perspective. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Magnusson, L., Ottosson, J. (1997) Evolutionary Economics and Path Dependence. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Mahoney, J. (2000) Path dependence in historical sociology. Theory and Society, 29(4): 507–548.

Martin, R. L. (2000) Institutional approaches to economic geography. In E. Sheppard and T. Barnes (eds) A Companion to Economic Geography. Oxford: Blackwell, 77–94.

Martin, R. L. (2006) Pfadabhängigkeit und die ökonomische Landschaft. In C. Berndt and J. Glückler (eds) Denkanstöße zu einer anderen Geographie der Ökonomie. Bielefeld University Press.

Massey, D. (1984) Spatial Divisions of Labour. London: Macmillan.

Massey, D. (1992) Politics and space/time. New Left Review, 196: 65–84.

Menger. C. (1883) (1985) Investigation into the Method of the Social Sciences. New York: New York University Press.

Metcalfe, J. S., Foster, J., Ramlogan, R. (2006) Adaptive economic growth. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 30: 7–32.

Mokyr, J. (1990) The Level of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Mueller, D. C. (1997) First-mover advantages and path dependence. International Journal of Industrial Organisation, 15: 827–850.

Nelson, R. R. (2003) On the uneven evolution of human know-how. Research Policy, 32: 909–922.

North, D. C. (1990) Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Page, S. E. (2006) Path dependence. Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 1: 87–115.

Pavitt, K. (2005) Innovation processes. In J. Fagerberg, D. C. Mowery and R. R. Nelson (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Innovation, Chapter 4. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 86–114.

Pierson, P. (2000) Increasing returns, path dependence and the study of politics. American Political Science Review, 94: 252–267.

Pinch, S., Henry, N. (1999) Paul Krugman's geographical economics, industrial clustering and the British motor sport industry. Regional Studies, 33: 815–827.

Potts, J. (2000) The New Evolutionary Microeconomics: Complexity, Competence and Adaptive Behaviour. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Powell, W. W., Koput, K. W., Smith-Doerr, L. (1996) Inter-organizational collaboration and the locus of innovation: networks of learning in biotechnology. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41: 116–145.

Puffert, D. (2000) Path dependence, network form and technological change. Paper presented at the Conference to Honour Paul David—History Matters: Economic Growth, Technology, and Population, Stanford University.

Rantisi, N. (2002) The local innovation system as a source of ‘variety’: openness and adaptability in New York City's Garment District. Regional Studies, 36: 587–602.

Redding, S. (2002) Path dependence, endogenous innovation and growth. International Economic Review, 43: 1215–1248.

Rigby, D. L., Essletzbichler, J. (1997) Evolution, process variety, and regional trajectories of technological change in U.S. manufacturing. Economic Geography, 73: 269–283.

Ruef, M. (2002) Strong ties, weak ties and islands: structural and cultural predictors of organizational innovation. Industrial and Corporate Change, 11: 427–449.

Ruttan, V. W. (1997) Induced innovation, evolutionary theory and path dependence: sources of technical change. Economic Journal, 107: 1520–1529.

Ruttan, V. W. (2001) Sources of technical change: induced innovation, evolutionary theory and path dependence. In R. Garud and P. Karnøe (eds) Path Dependence and Creation. London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 91–123.

Saxenian, A. (1996) Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and Route 128. Harvard: Harvard University Press.

Schamp, E. (2002) Evolution und Institution als Grundlagen einer dynamischen Wirtschaftsgeographie: Die Bedeutung von externen Skalenerträgen für geographische Konzentration (Evolution and institutions as concepts for a dynamic economic geography: the role of external economies of scale for geographical concentration). Geographische Zeitschrift, 90: 40–51.

Schwartz, H. (2004) Down the wrong path: path dependence, increasing returns, and historical institutionalism. Mimeo, Department of Politics, University of Virginia.

Scott, A. J. (2006) Geography and Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Scott, A. J., Storper, M. (1987) High technology industry and regional development: a theoretical critique and reconstruction. International Social Science Journal, 1: 215–232.

Setterfield, M. (1993) A model of institutional hysteresis. Journal of Economic Issues, 27: 755–774.

Setterfield, M. (1995) Historical time and economic theory. Review of Political Economy, 7: 1–27.

Setterfield, M. (1997) Rapid Growth and Relative Decline: Modelling Macroeconomic Dynamics with Hysteresis. London: Macmillan.

Setterfield, M. (2001) Cumulative causation, interrelatedness and the theory of economic growth: a reply to Argyrous and Toner. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 25: 107–112.

Smith, N. (1984) Uneven Development. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Storper, M. (1995) The resurgence of regional economies ten years later: the region as a nexus of untraded interdependencies. European Urban and Regional Studies, 2: 191–221.

Storper, M. (1997) The Regional World: Territorial Development in a Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Storper M., Walker, R. (1989) The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology and Industrial Growth. Oxford: Blackwell.

Sturgeon, T. (2000) How Silicon Valley came to be. In M. Kenney (ed.) Understanding Silicon Valley: Anatomy of an Entrepreneurial Region, Chapter 1. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Sydow, J., Schreyogg, G., Koch, J. (2005) Organizational paths: path dependency and beyond. Paper given at 21st EGOS Colloquium 30 June–2 July 2005. Berlin, Germany.

Thelen, K. (1999) Historical institutionalism in comparative politics. Annual Review of Political Science, 2: 369–404.

Veblen, T. (1898) Why is economics not an evolutionary science? Quarterly Review of Economics, 12: 373–397.

Visser, E-J., Boschma, R. (2004) Learning in districts: novelty and ‘lock-in’ in a regional context. European Planning Studies, 12: 793–808.

Vromen, J. (1995) Economic Evolution: An Enquiry into the Foundations of New Institutional Economics. London: Routledge.

Walker, R. (2001) The geography of production. In E. Sheppard and T. Barnes (eds) A Companion to Economic Geography. Oxford: Blackwell, 113–132.

Witt, U. (1992) Evolutionary concepts in economics. Eastern Economic Journal, 18: 405–419.

Witt, U. (1997) ‘Lock-in’ versus ‘critical masses’—industrial change under network externalities. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 15: 753–773.

Witt, U. (2003) The Evolving Economy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

Zeitlin, J. (1995) Why are there no industrial districts in the United Kingdom? In A. Bagnasco and C. F. Sabel (eds) Small and Medium Sized Enterprises, Chapter 6. London: Pinter, 98–114.

Zook, M. (2005) The Geography of the Internet Industry. Oxford: Blackwell.